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Guide · Building frames

Steel building frame (braced, moment-resisting or core-stabilised): how it carries load, where it fails, and when to choose it

Dubai, UAESources checked 26 September 2026Technical review pending

Sources, edition and review status 6 source documents
Applies to
Dubai, UAE
Covers
Building frames · Composite · Load paths · Members · Connections · Design basis · Bases and anchors · Erection
Based on
Dubai Building Code 2021 Edition, Part A A.5.1 and Part F (F.5.3 to F.5.5, F.6.5, F.7, F.8.6); ANSI/AISC 360-16 Chapters B, C, E, F, H, I, J and Appendix 7, as the Code references AISC 360; JRC Eurocode worked examples (E004), SCI P358 and P398 (E005, E006) and the ASI erection guide (E019) for principles only
Source check
AI-assisted check of the cited pages against the source documents. Numbers, tables and exceptions were read from the source pages. Corrected on 30 September 2026 after a separate AI check against the source pages: the condition on notional loads, the recommended robustness approach, the alternative-solution exception, when a temporary works engineer is recommended and the wording on welding in moment joints; the corrected statements have had an author check only. Corrected on 11 and 12 October 2026 after separate AI checks against the source pages: stability conditions: the load-combination basis and stiffness of the drift ratios, the K = 1.0 exception, the hinge exceptions in moment frames, the construction-sequence analysis triggers, the member scope of the interaction equations and the list of concentrated-force checks; the corrected statements have had an author check only. No independent human engineering or legal review yet.
Status
Technical review pending. Later DBC amendments and circulars not audited.

How this library uses sources · Source notes for this guide

Short answer

A steel building frame carries gravity from the floors through beams and columns to the bases, and needs a lateral system of braced bays, moment frames or a core to resist wind and earthquake; the Dubai Building Code requires continuous load paths to the ground and every feature critical to stability, including members that restrain critical compression members, to be identified and included in the design.1 The answer continues below the drawing.

The reference structure

Three-storey steel building frame, step by step: its parts, gravity carried from the middle bay down its two columns, wind carried by the floors and collectors to the braced bay and the moment frame, tension and compression in the bracing, the moment-frame bay drawn alone bending at its rigid joints, wind with gravity on the swayed frame, and eight numbered places where such frames can fail Floor slab Braces Pinned joints Rigid joints Floor loads Sag (exaggerated) Wind Floors and collectors CompressionTension Helddown Load path Swayed shape (exaggerated) Bending at joints Joint turns, angle kept P-Delta Braced bay Simple beams Moment frame 12345678

Close-up views

Illustrative and not to scale: no dimensions, and not a construction detail. The actual detail is designed by the project engineer.

Close-up of one braced storey under wind from the left: the rising diagonal pulled, the falling diagonal squeezed, the windward column held down Wind Rising diagonal pulled Falling diagonal squeezed Windward column held down

One braced storey, wind from the left (step 4)

  • With wind from the left, the diagonal rising to the right is pulled (tension, blue) and the other is squeezed (compression, red), as in step 4 of the overview.
  • The windward column is pulled up and held down at its base; both bases resist the sideways push. Wind from the right reverses every sign.
Close-up of a rigid beam-to-column joint as the frame sways: the joint turns but the right angle between beam and column is kept, and the bending is largest there Beam and column turn together (dashed) Right angle kept Bending largest at the joint Column

A rigid joint as the frame sways (step 5)

  • In the moment-frame bay the joint turns as the frame sways, but the beam and column turn together, so the right angle between them is kept.
  • That is why they bend, and why the bending is largest at the joint.

Key: amber arrows are loads and amber dashes the load path; straight black arrows are reactions, the forces the supports give back; grey dashes and dots are shapes, exaggerated; where marked, thick rust-red lines are in compression and thick blue lines in tension; shaded amber areas mark where the step’s effect is greatest; numbered rust circles are potential failure points.

Load cases shown one at a time: gravity, then wind from the left (through the floors, the braced bay and the moment-frame bay, and with gravity on the swayed frame). Three-storey frame in its own plane: one braced bay, one bay of beams with pinned (simple) connections and one moment-frame bay with rigid joints; column bases drawn pinned. Steps 5 and 6 draw the moment-frame bay as if it stood alone. Tension and compression are shown for wind from the left. Schematic: movement is exaggerated and not to scale, and no values are calculated.

  1. The frame Columns and beams in three bays: a braced bay with diagonal braces, a middle bay of beams with simple (pinned) connections, and a moment-frame bay whose rigid joints keep their angle. Each floor slab also works as a horizontal plate, a diaphragm, that collects sideways load.
  2. Gravity Gravity load case, drawn for the middle bay (the other bays are loaded the same way): each slab passes the floor's weight to the beams, the beams to the columns, and each column carries every floor above it down to its base, where the foundation holds it up. The simple beams sag between their pinned joints (exaggerated) and pass mainly shear, so the columns they sit on carry mainly axial load.
  3. Wind reaches the frames Wind from the left, a separate case: it presses on the cladding, which spans to the floor edges. Each floor carries the load in its own plane, and the beams, acting as collectors, drag it into the braced bay and on to the moment frame, which share it according to their stiffness.
  4. The braced bay Same wind case: in each braced storey one diagonal is pulled (tension, blue) and the other squeezed (compression, red), taking the force down to the bases. The overturning pulls the windward column up and pushes the other down; where the pull exceeds the dead load, the anchor rods hold the base down, and the foundations resist the shear. Wind from the right reverses every sign.
  5. The moment frame, drawn alone Wind from the left, with the moment-frame bay drawn as if it stood alone (bracing faded): the rigid joints stop each rectangle folding, so the columns and beams bend, most at the joints, and each joint turns but keeps its angle (detail above the frame). Its pinned feet pass the shear and the overturning to the foundations. In this building the floors tie it to the stiffer braced bay, so the two sway together and the braced bay takes the larger share of the wind.
  6. Wind with gravity Wind with gravity, a combined case (moment-frame bay drawn alone; the roof arrows stand for every floor's weight): as the frame leans, gravity acting through the displaced floors adds overturning (P-Delta), and bowed members add more. Gravity (leaning) columns elsewhere carry floor load but rely on the bracing and frames to stay upright, so their load counts in the stability design.
  7. Potential failure points Where such frames can fail if a check or detail is missed, numbered as in the list below: the ground-storey brace in compression, the brace gusset and bolts, a floor beam, a moment joint, a ground-storey column, the braced-bay base, the floor diaphragm and collectors, and sway of the whole frame. Schematic, not a prediction.

Numbered places where it can fail (the final step)

  1. Ground-storey brace in compression: flexural buckling
  2. Brace gusset and bolts: block shear, bolt shear and tearout
  3. Floor beam: bending and lateral-torsional buckling
  4. Moment joint: column flange bending and panel-zone shear
  5. Ground-storey column: buckling with axial force and bending
  6. Braced-bay base: uplift and shear on the anchor rods
  7. Floor diaphragm and collectors: load not delivered to the bracing
  8. Whole frame: sway and second-order (P-Delta) effects
Reference structure: a three-storey steel frame with one braced bay, one bay of simply connected beams and one moment-frame bay, with wind from the left carried through the floors and bracing to the bases. The dotted grey line is the swayed shape (exaggerated), the grey dashed line a buckled brace, and the amber dashed line the load path. Diagram only, not to scale and with no design values.

Short answer, continued

Steel in Dubai is designed to AISC 360, with AISC 341 for seismic design.2 AISC 360 requires stability of the whole structure and of each member, allowing for second-order effects, imperfections and connection deformations.3 Frames usually fail at a few predictable places, such as a buckled brace, a torn gusset, a beam buckling sideways, a moment joint whose column web yields or a column buckling, and each has a named AISC 360 check.4567 The choice between systems usually turns on open space, stiffness and connection cost, and UK guidance notes that simple connections are cheaper to fabricate than moment-resisting ones.8

A real example is the JRC Eurocode case-study building, based on the eight-storey Cardington test building: a braced frame 33 m tall, designed as a typical modern office building, with lightweight composite slabs and cross bracing of flat steel plates around its three access shafts.910 It is a European example, not a Dubai design basis.

What it is

Engineering explanation

A steel building frame is a skeleton of columns and beams that holds up floors and a roof; in the UAE it is used for offices, schools, hotels, car parks, shops and mixed-use blocks, usually with concrete floors cast on steel deck. Gravity is the easy part: beams carry each floor to the columns and the columns carry it to the foundations. Sideways load from wind and earthquake needs one of three systems, alone or together: braced frames, where diagonals turn rectangles into triangles; moment frames, where rigid beam-to-column joints make each rectangle hold its shape; or cores around the lifts and stairs. Every floor also works as a horizontal plate, a diaphragm, that collects the sideways load and delivers it to those systems.

How it carries load

Part F requires a structure to provide continuous load paths that carry actions from where they are applied to the ground, and every feature critical to overall stability to be identified and included in the design, including all members that restrain critical members in compression.1 Its Figure F.2, drawn as a concrete building and adapted from ACI 318-19, shows the parts of such a system: diaphragms, collectors, structural walls, a moment-resisting frame, gravity loads, in-plane inertial loads and out-of-plane wind pressure or inertial loads.11

Engineering explanation

Gravity first. The slab spans to the secondary beams, those to the primary beams, the primary beams to the columns, and each column carries every floor above it down to its base. In a braced building most beam-to-column joints are simple connections that pass shear but little moment, so the beams act as simply supported and the columns carry mainly axial load.

AISC 360 allows a simple connection to be modelled as free to rotate, provided it has enough rotation capacity for the rotation the analysis predicts; a fully restrained (FR) connection is modelled with no relative rotation and must be strong and stiff enough to keep the initial angle between the members at the strength limit states; a partially restrained (PR) connection must have its force-deformation response included in the analysis.1213

Engineering explanation

Then wind. It presses on the cladding, which spans to the floor edges. Each floor, acting as a deep horizontal beam, carries its share to the lateral system, and collector beams drag it into the braced bays, moment frames or core. In a braced bay the force becomes axial: one diagonal pulls, the other pushes, and the columns either side take the overturning as tension and compression. In a moment frame it is carried by bending, with the rigid joints stopping each rectangle folding. At the bottom the lateral system delivers shear, compression and often uplift to the foundations.

  1. CladdingWind pressure spans to the floor edges.
  2. Floor diaphragmThe slab carries the load in its own plane.
  3. CollectorsBeams and connections drag it into the lateral system.
  4. Lateral systemBraces carry it axially, frames by bending, a core by shear and bending.
  5. BasesShear, compression and uplift pass into the foundations.
Our summary of the lateral load path in a multi-storey steel frame.

Engineering explanation

Columns outside the lateral system are gravity, or leaning, columns: they carry floor load but rely on the bracing or frames to hold them upright, which is why stability is designed for the whole building, not member by member.

AISC 360 requires stability for the structure as a whole and for each element, considering member and connection deformations, second-order P-Δ and P-δ effects, geometric imperfections, stiffness reduction from inelasticity and uncertainty in strength and stiffness.3 A user note stresses that it is important to include all gravity loads in the analysis, including loads on leaning columns and other elements outside the lateral force-resisting system.14

Where and how it fails

Engineering explanation

1. Brace in compression. Under wind from the left, one diagonal in each braced storey is squeezed. A long, slender brace bows sideways and loses stiffness before the steel yields, and the storey then relies on the tension brace alone. It happens most often in the ground storey, where the storey shear is largest and the braces are longest.

Compressive strength is the lowest of flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling, with φc = 0.90 or Ωc = 1.67; flexural buckling follows Section E3, and a user note says Lc/r should preferably not exceed 200.154 Single-angle braces are checked under Section E5.16

Engineering explanation

2. Brace connection. The brace force enters the frame through a gusset plate, bolts and welds. The gusset can tear out as a block around the bolts, the bolts can shear or tear through the plate edge, and a slender gusset can buckle when the brace pushes. A brace stronger than its connection fails at the connection, suddenly.

AISC 360 checks block shear rupture (Eq. J4-5, φ = 0.75), connecting elements in compression by yielding where Lc/r is 25 or less and by Chapter E above that, bolt tension and shear rupture under J3.6, and bearing and tearout at bolt holes under J3.10.51718 A user note warns that the effective length factor of a connecting element depends on its end restraint and is not necessarily unity under the direct analysis method.5

Engineering explanation

3. Floor beam. A beam bends with its top flange in compression; if nothing holds that flange sideways, the beam can buckle out of plane and twist before reaching its full strength. The hardened, connected slab holds the top flange in service; the dangerous times are during construction, before the deck is fixed and the concrete has set, and wherever a beam cantilevers or hogs so that its bottom flange is in compression.

For compact doubly symmetric I-shapes the nominal flexural strength is the lower of yielding (Mn = FyZx) and lateral-torsional buckling, which does not apply while the unbraced length Lb is no more than Lp.6 Chapter F assumes beam supports are restrained against rotation about the beam's longitudinal axis, and AISC 360 requires that restraint unless analysis shows it is not needed.1912

Engineering explanation

4. Moment joint. In a moment frame the beam flanges push and pull on the column at every joint. The column flange can bend open under the tension flange, the web can yield or crumple under the compression flange, and the panel of web inside the joint is sheared. The joint then rotates more than the analysis assumed, and the frame sways more.

Section J10 checks flange local bending, web local yielding, web crippling, web sidesway buckling, web compression buckling and web panel-zone shear, and requires stiffeners or doublers where the required strength exceeds the available strength.202122 For panel-zone shear φ = 0.90 or Ω = 1.67, and Eq. J10-9 to J10-12 differ according to whether inelastic panel-zone deformation is included in the stability analysis.7

Engineering explanation

5. Ground-storey column. The lowest columns carry the most floors and, in a lateral system, the overturning force too. A column buckles between the points where it is held; in a moment frame it also bends, and sway adds moment from gravity load acting on the displaced frame.

For doubly symmetric members, and singly symmetric members constrained to bend about a geometric axis, combined compression and flexure is limited by Eq. H1-1a and H1-1b, with required strengths from the Chapter C analysis and axial strength from Chapter E.23 Under the direct analysis method the effective length for flexural buckling is the unbraced length unless rational analysis justifies less, and bracing that defines it needs enough stiffness and strength to control movement at the braced points.24

Engineering explanation

6. Base of the braced bay. The columns below a braced bay collect the vertical component of the brace forces: one side is pushed down, the other pulled up. When the pull exceeds the dead load, the base lifts and the anchor rods go into tension while also passing the storey shear. Rods that pull out or break, or concrete that breaks out around them, release the whole lateral system.

Anchor rods are designed for the required resistance at column bases, including net tension from any bending moment, as threaded parts, with force transfer into the concrete to ACI 318 or ACI 349; where they resist horizontal force, hole size, setting tolerance and column movement are considered.25 In Dubai, post-installed anchors are designed to ACI 318-19 for all conceivable failure mechanisms, illustrated in Figure F.14.26

Engineering explanation

7. Floor diaphragm and collectors. If a floor cannot deliver its share of wind to the braced bay, because of a large opening, a weak deck connection or a collector whose end connection was designed only for shear, the bracing is never reached. It is a load-path failure, easy to miss when the model treats every floor as rigid.

Diaphragms and collectors are designed for the forces from the specified loads, to Chapters C to K, and composite slab diaphragms and collector beams are designed and detailed to transfer loads between the diaphragm, its boundary members, the collectors and the lateral force-resisting system.1327

Engineering explanation

8. Whole frame: sway and second-order effects. As the frame leans, gravity load acting through the displaced floors adds overturning (P-Δ), and bowed members add more (P-δ). A flexible frame with heavy floors can amplify its own sway until it becomes unstable; braced frames usually stay stiff enough, slender moment frames are where it governs.

The direct analysis method uses second-order analysis with initial imperfections, modelled directly or, where gravity is carried mainly by nominally vertical columns, walls or frames, as notional loads Ni = 0.002αYi at every level (Eq. C2-1); P-δ on the overall response may be neglected only where gravity is carried mainly by nominally vertical members, the second-order to first-order drift ratio, for LRFD or 1.6 × ASD combinations with C2.3 reduced stiffness, is 1.7 or less in all storeys and no more than one-third of the gravity load is on moment-frame columns in the direction considered, and P-δ must always be considered when members under combined compression and flexure are checked.2829 A user note explains that steel members are analysed with 0.8τb times their flexural stiffness and 0.8 times their other stiffnesses.24

Advantages and limitations

AspectAdvantageLimitation
Braced frame, stiffnessDiagonals carry sway as axial force, so drift is usually small for the steel usedDiagonals block doors, windows and circulation in the braced bays
Braced frame, connectionsBeam joints elsewhere can be simple, repeatable shear connectionsGussets carry large forces, and braced-bay bases must resist uplift
Moment frame, open baysNo diagonals, so facades and floor plates stay openMore flexible, so drift and second-order effects often decide member sizes
Moment frame, placement and jointsCan go where bracing is not acceptable, such as shopfrontsRigid joints generally have more welding, stiffening and inspection
Concrete or braced coreLifts and stairs enclose the stiff element, leaving the plan freeSteel and concrete shorten differently, and the interface needs tolerance and detail
Steel frame, speedShop-made members erected quickly, with floors following on deckNeeds fire and corrosion protection and temporary bracing until the permanent system is complete
Braced frames, moment frames and cores compared (our assessment)

Engineering judgement for typical UAE building frames, not a code rule. UK guidance on joint costs is cited in the next section.30

Why this structure, and not another

Engineering explanation

In our view the first question is where diagonals are allowed. If the architecture offers solid walls around stairs, lifts or plant rooms, a braced frame there is almost always the lightest and stiffest answer, and the rest of the building can use simple beams. Where the facade or floor must stay open, moment frames go where braces cannot, and many buildings mix the two, or put a braced or concrete core in the middle.

SCI P358 gives the UK economics: in a typical braced multi-storey frame the connections may be less than 5% of the frame weight but 30% or more of its total cost, and simple connections are invariably cheaper to fabricate than moment-resisting ones.318 SCI P398 adds that moment-resisting joints generally have much more welding, which is expensive and involves inspection.30 UK practice, cited for principle; UAE workshop costs were not researched.

Engineering explanation

Steel or concrete? Concrete frames with shear walls dominate UAE residential building. Steel tends to win for long spans, short programmes, buildings to be extended or altered, and work that can be done in the shop; a steel frame around a concrete core combines both. The grid, fire and corrosion protection, fabrication capacity and programme usually decide. This comparison is ours; no held source makes it for the UAE.

European seismic guidance lists principles that help any lateral system: structural simplicity with clear load paths, uniformity and symmetry, resistance and stiffness in both main directions, torsional stiffness, and floors acting as diaphragms connected to the vertical systems.32 They are cited as principles, not as a Dubai requirement.

For the experienced engineer

Imperfections may always be modelled directly, displacing the member intersection points by the maximum amount considered in design in the most destabilising pattern, and a user note says initial displacements similar to both the displacements due to loading and the anticipated buckling modes should be considered.14 Where gravity is carried mainly by nominally vertical members and the drift ratio, for LRFD or 1.6 × ASD combinations with C2.3 reduced stiffness, is 1.7 or less in all storeys, directly modelled imperfections may be included in gravity-only combinations only.29 The effective length method is permitted only where gravity is carried mainly by nominally vertical members and the second-order to first-order drift ratio, for LRFD or 1.6 × ASD combinations with unreduced stiffness, is 1.5 or less in all storeys;33 K = 1.0 then applies in braced frames unless a smaller value is justified, while moment-frame columns need a sidesway buckling analysis unless that drift ratio, on the same basis, is 1.1 or less.34

In UK Eurocode practice, SCI P398 says its own standardised, well-proportioned connections, designed for strength alone, can generally be assumed rigid in braced frames and single-storey portal frames, but that in multi-storey unbraced frames joint rotational stiffness is fundamental to frame stability, so it must be evaluated or the details must realise the rigid assumption.30 The JRC Eurocode text models a semi-rigid joint as a rotational spring.35 Under AISC 360 such a joint is a PR connection, whose response characteristics must be documented in the literature or established by analysis or test.13

Seismic design in Dubai follows AISC 341, not held here, with loads to ASCE/SEI 7-16, and each structure takes the more severe seismic design category from Table F.15.23637 As principles only, the Eurocode 8 text explains that moment frames are designed to form plastic hinges in beams or connections rather than columns, except at the column bases, at the top level of multi-storey buildings and in single-storey buildings;38 that in X and diagonal concentric bracing the compression braces are neglected and the tension braces take the lateral force, while V and inverted-V bracing should count both;39 and that eccentrically braced frames concentrate yielding in links.40

AISC 360 B3.9 applies when the applicable building code requires design for structural integrity; it then sets minimum tensile strengths for column splices, beam end connections and the end connections of column braces, evaluated independently of other strength requirements.1341 Part F makes one robustness approach mandatory, direct design by tie forces, alternate path or enhanced local resistance, or indirect design; it recommends direct design, and Table F.2 illustrates the checks by risk category.42

Engineering explanation

No Part F text we read calls up B3.9, so it is not automatically mandatory in Dubai. Its connection tensions are one practical way to show the minimum strength and continuity of the indirect approach; if they are used, or not, say so in the basis of design.

Part F says a non-linear static construction-sequence analysis of differential vertical shortening should be performed, and requires it at least for buildings with different core and perimeter-column stresses, asymmetric plans or massing, stepped setbacks or outriggers.43 Construction-load assumptions go on the drawings,44 AISC 360 requires temporary bracing as erection proceeds for as long as safety requires,45 and the Australian erection guide recommends a temporary works engineer for any non-standard structure: one for which the erector lacks extensive experience and a high level of competence, or which needs special processes or erection methodology.46

Engineering explanation

Known pitfalls: a gusset weaker than its brace; a collector checked for bending with an end connection designed for shear only; leaning-column load missing from the stability model; a rigid-floor assumption kept after large openings were cut; beam restraint assumed from a slab not yet cast; and permanent bracing completed last, leaving the frame on temporary bracing nobody designed.

Which rules apply in Dubai

The Dubai Building Code applies to new buildings and to the changes to existing buildings in Table A.1, except where an alternative solution is permitted, for the occupancies of Table A.2, from assembly, business, educational, hotel and residential buildings to parking, retail, malls, industry and warehouses.47 A steel building frame for any of them is designed under Part F, whose acceptance criteria include strength, serviceability, stability against overturning and sway, fatigue and brittle fracture, corrosion, fire and accidental loads.48

Structural steel is designed to AISC 360, with seismic design to AISC 341, and loads are defined and combined to ASCE/SEI 7-16 and section F.7.249 Wind tunnel testing is required for buildings taller than 120 m; for buildings more than five times as tall as their average width; for buildings of unusual shape or surroundings that ASCE/SEI 7-16 or other reliable data do not cover, where a safe design with conservative wind loads is not possible; and for any other building whose designer wants its wind behaviour established more reliably.50 Wind drift under 10-year pressures is limited by Table F.11.51

Practical consideration

Table A.2 lists no healthcare occupancy, so for a hospital or clinic confirm with the Authority which code and which occupancy apply before relying on Part F alone. For the detailed rules read Load paths, stability and bracing of steel structures in Dubai and Serviceability of steel structures in Dubai. AISC 341 and ASCE/SEI 7-16 are named by the Code but not held, so seismic detailing rules and load combinations are gaps.

What to settle before design

What to settle before design

  • Occupancy confirmed against DBC Table A.2 (healthcare, for example, is not listed)
  • Lateral system in each direction, and where diagonals are allowed
  • Load path traced by hand in both directions, including diaphragm openings and collector connections
  • Every gravity (leaning) column load included in the stability analysis
  • Stability method named, with the drift ratio that permits it
  • Joint types stated: simple, FR or PR, and the rotation capacity or stiffness each relies on
  • Seismic design category and whether AISC 341 detailing applies
  • Robustness approach under F.5.5 and how it is met
  • Uplift and shear at braced-bay bases, anchor rods and concrete checks
  • Differential shortening between core and steel columns in taller buildings
  • Erection sequence, temporary bracing and construction loads on the drawings

A working list for a junior engineer. It is not an approval checklist.

Scope and limits

Practical consideration

This guide reads the 2021 Dubai Building Code and ANSI/AISC 360-16 as checked on the date shown; later amendments were not audited. AISC 341, ASCE/SEI 7-16, ACI 318-19, ACI 117-10, UFC 4-023-03, the AISC Commentary and the Code of Standard Practice are named but not held. The JRC worked examples, SCI P358 and P398 and the Australian erection guide are cited for principles only. The drawing and comparisons are our illustration and judgement. This guide is not a design; review and acceptance sit with the project's appointed engineer and the Authority.

Questions this guide answers

Source notes

Numbered notes point to the exact section and physical PDF page. Page numbers are the PDF viewer’s page, which can differ from the number printed on the page. Sources checked 26 September 2026. These notes support the statements; they are not a substitute for reading the current document for a project.

  1. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.5.4 Structural stability (printed page F13), PDF page 339. Open the publisher PDF at page 339 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  2. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.6.5.1 Design basis and F.6.5.2 Steel grades, right-hand column (printed page F29), PDF page 355. Open the publisher PDF at page 355 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  3. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Chapter C introduction with User Note, C1 General stability requirements and C1.1 Direct analysis method, printed page 16.1-22. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  4. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections E2 Effective length, with User Notes, and E3 Flexural buckling, Eq. E3-1 to E3-3, printed page 16.1-35. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  5. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J4.3 Block shear strength, Eq. J4-5, J4.4 Strength of elements in compression and J4.5, printed page 16.1-138. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  6. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section F2 Doubly symmetric compact I-shaped members: F2.1 Yielding and F2.2 Lateral-torsional buckling, printed page 16.1-47. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  7. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J10.6 Web panel-zone shear, Eq. J10-9 to J10-12, and J10.7, printed page 16.1-146. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  8. Joints in Steel Construction: Simple Joints to Eurocode 3 (SCI P358), 2014 reprint. Steel Construction Institute and British Constructional Steelwork Association. SCI P358, Section 1.2 Joint considerations, continued, 1.3 Exchange of information and 1.4 Costs (printed page 2), PDF page 12. Open the publisher PDF at page 12 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  9. Eurocodes: Background & Applications - Design of Steel Buildings, Worked Examples, 2015, EUR 27346 EN / JRC96658. European Commission Joint Research Centre / Publications Office of the European Union. Chapter 1, 1.2.3.1 Case-study building, introduction and Figure 1.4 (printed page 19), PDF page 35. Open the publisher PDF at page 35 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  10. Eurocodes: Background & Applications - Design of Steel Buildings, Worked Examples, 2015, EUR 27346 EN / JRC96658. European Commission Joint Research Centre / Publications Office of the European Union. Chapter 1, Figure 1.5 and 1.2.3.2 Description of the structure (printed page 20), PDF page 36. Open the publisher PDF at page 36 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  11. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, Figure F.2 Typical actions and structural system and its key (printed page F14), PDF page 340. Open the publisher PDF at page 340 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  12. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section B3.4 Design of connections and supports, B3.4a Simple connections and B3.4b(a) FR moment connections, printed page 16.1-13. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  13. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections B3.4b(b) PR moment connections, B3.5 Diaphragms and collectors, B3.6, B3.7 and B3.9(a)-(b) Structural integrity, printed page 16.1-14. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

  14. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section C2.1(c) User Note, C2.1(d), C2.2 and C2.2a Direct modeling of imperfections, printed page 16.1-24. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  15. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Chapter E, E1 General provisions, printed page 16.1-33. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  16. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section E5 Single-angle compression members, printed page 16.1-38. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  17. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J3.4, J3.5 and J3.6 Tensile and shear strength of bolts and threaded parts, Eq. J3-1, printed page 16.1-131. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  18. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J3.9 and J3.10 Bearing and tearout strength at bolt holes, printed page 16.1-135. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  19. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section F1 General provisions, printed page 16.1-46. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  20. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J10 Flanges and webs with concentrated forces, introduction, and J10.1 Flange local bending, printed page 16.1-142. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  21. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J10.2 Web local yielding and J10.3 Web local crippling, printed page 16.1-143. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  22. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J10.4 continued, J10.5 Web compression buckling and J10.6 Web panel-zone shear, introduction, printed page 16.1-145. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  23. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Chapter H, H1.1 Flexure and compression, Eq. H1-1a and H1-1b, printed page 16.1-77. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  24. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section C2.3(b)-(d), with User Note, and C3 Calculation of available strengths, printed page 16.1-27. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  25. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J8 Bearing on concrete and J9 Anchor rods and embedments, with User Notes, printed page 16.1-141. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  26. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.6.5.4 Structural connections: bolted, welded and post-installed anchors, with Figure F.14 (printed page F31), PDF page 357. Open the publisher PDF at page 357 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  27. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections I7 Composite diaphragms and collector beams and I8.1 Steel anchors, general, printed page 16.1-104. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  28. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections C1.2 Alternative methods of design and C2.1(a)-(c) General analysis requirements, printed page 16.1-23. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  29. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section C2.2a continued and C2.2b Use of notional loads, Eq. C2-1, printed page 16.1-25. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  30. Joints in Steel Construction: Moment-Resisting Joints to Eurocode 3 (SCI P398), 2013. Steel Construction Institute / British Constructional Steelwork Association. SCI P398, Section 1.3 Joint classification and 1.4 Costs (printed page 2), PDF page 10. Open the publisher PDF at page 10 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  31. Joints in Steel Construction: Simple Joints to Eurocode 3 (SCI P358), 2014 reprint. Steel Construction Institute and British Constructional Steelwork Association. SCI P358, Section 2.1 The benefits of standardisation (printed page 5), PDF page 15. Open the publisher PDF at page 15 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  32. Eurocodes: Background & Applications - Design of Steel Buildings, Worked Examples, 2015, EUR 27346 EN / JRC96658. European Commission Joint Research Centre / Publications Office of the European Union. Chapter 5, 5.4.3 Basic principles of conceptual design (printed page 303), PDF page 319. Open the publisher PDF at page 319 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  33. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 7 introduction, 7.1 General stability requirements and 7.2.1-7.2.2 Effective length method, printed page 16.1-245. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  34. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 7.2.3 Available strengths, with exception, printed page 16.1-246. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  35. Eurocodes: Background & Applications - Design of Steel Buildings, Worked Examples, 2015, EUR 27346 EN / JRC96658. European Commission Joint Research Centre / Publications Office of the European Union. Chapter 3, 3.1.2 The semi-continuous approach, Figures 3.1 and 3.2 (printed page 138), PDF page 154. Open the publisher PDF at page 154 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  36. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.13.1 Scope and F.7.13.2 Seismic performance criteria (printed page F40), PDF page 366. Open the publisher PDF at page 366 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  37. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.13.10 Seismic design category and Table F.15 (printed page F42), PDF page 368. Open the publisher PDF at page 368 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  38. Eurocodes: Background & Applications - Design of Steel Buildings, Worked Examples, 2015, EUR 27346 EN / JRC96658. European Commission Joint Research Centre / Publications Office of the European Union. Chapter 5, 5.5.2.2, 5.5.2.3 and 5.5.3 Design criteria for moment resisting frames (printed page 309), PDF page 325. Open the publisher PDF at page 325 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  39. Eurocodes: Background & Applications - Design of Steel Buildings, Worked Examples, 2015, EUR 27346 EN / JRC96658. European Commission Joint Research Centre / Publications Office of the European Union. Chapter 5, 5.5.4 Design criteria for concentrically braced frames and Figure 5.8 (printed page 311), PDF page 327. Open the publisher PDF at page 327 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  40. Eurocodes: Background & Applications - Design of Steel Buildings, Worked Examples, 2015, EUR 27346 EN / JRC96658. European Commission Joint Research Centre / Publications Office of the European Union. Chapter 5, 5.5.5 Design criteria for eccentrically braced frames and Figure 5.11 (printed page 314), PDF page 330. Open the publisher PDF at page 330 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  41. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections B3.9(c), B3.10 Ponding, B3.11 Fatigue, B3.12 Fire conditions and B3.13 Corrosion effects, printed page 16.1-15. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  42. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.5.5 Robustness against disproportionate collapse and Table F.2 (printed page F15), PDF page 341. Open the publisher PDF at page 341 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  43. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.8.6 Drift and deformation of buildings, F.8.6.1 to F.8.6.5 (printed page F46), PDF page 372. Open the publisher PDF at page 372 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  44. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.7 Construction load (printed page F35), PDF page 361. Open the publisher PDF at page 361 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  45. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section M4 Erection, M4.1 to M4.4, printed page 16.1-171. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  46. Practical Guide to Planning the Safe Erection of Steel Structures, First edition October 2016; verified PDF p. 1-2. Australian Steel Institute / Brookfield Multiplex. Section 1.4 Standard versus non-standard structures and 1.5 Project phases (printed page 2), PDF page 5. Open the publisher PDF at page 5 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  47. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part A, A.5.1 General, Table A.1 and Table A.2 Occupancies and use types (printed page A9), PDF page 11. Open the publisher PDF at page 11 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  48. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.5.3 Design acceptance criteria (printed page F13), PDF page 339. Open the publisher PDF at page 339 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  49. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.1 General and F.7.2 Load combinations (printed page F33), PDF page 359. Open the publisher PDF at page 359 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  50. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.12.3.1 Requirements for wind tunnel testing (printed page F38), PDF page 364. Open the publisher PDF at page 364 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  51. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.12.3.1 Requirements for testing, F.7.12.4.1 Allowable displacement and Table F.11 (printed page F38), PDF page 364. Open the publisher PDF at page 364 (opens in a new tab) ↩