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Guide · Stairs, ladders and guards

Steel stair, ladder or guard: how it carries load, where it fails, and when to choose it

Dubai, UAESources checked 26 September 2026Technical review pending

Sources, edition and review status 6 source documents
Applies to
Dubai, UAE
Covers
Stairs and guards · Mezzanines and platforms · Architectural metalwork · Access and guarding · Members · Connections · Serviceability · Bases and anchors · Corrosion and galvanizing
Based on
Dubai Building Code 2021 Part A (A.5.1), Part B (B.4.2.5.2, B.6.4.1.1 to B.6.4.1.15, B.7.3.3), Part C (C.5.9.1) and Part F (F.5.4, F.6.5.4, F.7.5, F.8.8.1); ANSI/AISC 360-16 Chapters B, F, H and J, as the Code references AISC 360; SCI P354 (UK), AGA and Euro Inox guidance (US and European industry practice) labelled as such
Source check
AI-assisted check of the cited pages against the source documents. Numbers, tables and exceptions were read from the source pages. Corrected on 26 September 2026 after an independent AI review: the advice on the sliding end of a flight; the corrected statements have had an author check only. Corrected on 30 September 2026 after a separate AI check against the source pages: the hole sizes AISC 360 allows in bearing-type connections, the Part K exception to the Part B stair geometry, the exceptions to the guardrail rule, and statements marked as our reading or as foreign guidance; the corrected statements have had an author check only. Corrected on 11 and 12 October 2026 after separate AI checks against the source pages: the ladder handrail condition, channel compactness, the slotted-hole rule and a source locator; the corrected statements have had an author check only. No independent human engineering or legal review yet.
Status
Technical review pending. Later DBC amendments and circulars not audited.

How this library uses sources · Source notes for this guide

Short answer

A steel stair is an inclined beam: the stringers carry each tread load to a landing or floor beam at the top and a base at the bottom, and the guardrail is a row of small cantilevers fixed to the stringer. The answer continues below the drawing.

The reference structure

Straight steel stair, step by step: its parts, footfall load, the load path to the base and the landing beam, the stringer's response, a push on the guardrail, twisting of the landing beam, and six numbered places where such stairs can fail Stringer Guardrail Landing beam Upper floor Base plate Treads Footfall Slides Vertical reactions (foot free to slide) Sag and bounce Push outward,towards you Post root Twist fromstringers onone side 123456

Close-up views

Illustrative and not to scale: no dimensions, and not a construction detail. The actual detail is designed by the project engineer.

Close-up of the stair foot drawn free to slide: the stringer seat on a bearing plate, retained so it cannot lift or walk off, with a vertical reaction only Retained: cannot lift or walk off Slides horizontally Vertical reaction only Stringer

The foot, drawn free to slide (step 3)

  • The stringer seat rests on a bearing plate and is retained so it cannot lift or walk off, while it can slide horizontally (grey arrow).
  • Because the foot slides, the support there gives a vertical reaction only.
  • Illustrative only: the actual sliding support is designed by the engineer, with its movement range, bearing surfaces and retention stated on the drawings.
Close-up of the top connection in section: the stringer framing into one side of the landing beam, its load off the beam's centre twisting the beam anticlockwise as seen here Stringer load, off the beam's centre Stringer Twists the beam Landing beam, in section

The top connection and the landing beam (step 6)

  • Seen in section, the stringer frames into one side of the landing beam, so its load acts to one side of the beam's centre and twists the beam: the side carrying the stringer is pulled down, turning the beam the way the curved arrow shows (anticlockwise in this view).
  • The connections and the beam's restraint have to be designed for that twist.
Close-up in section through the flight: an outward push on the guardrail bends the guard post, most at its root on the stringer Push outward Post bends (exaggerated) Largest bending at the post root Tread Stringer

A guard post, outward push (step 5)

  • This is a section through the flight, so the outward push that points towards you in the overview is drawn here in the plane of the drawing.
  • The post bends like a small cantilever, most at its root on the stringer, where its fixing has to carry that bending.

Key: amber arrows are loads and amber dashes the load path; straight black arrows are reactions, the forces the supports give back; grey dashed arrows with solid heads show movement, not a force; grey dashes and dots are shapes, exaggerated; a dot in a circle points towards you and a cross away from you; shaded amber areas mark where the step’s effect is greatest; curved arrows show a turning effect (a moment or a twist); numbered rust circles are potential failure points.

Load cases shown one at a time: people on the treads, then a push on the guardrail. One straight flight between a base plate and a landing beam, drawn with its foot free to slide horizontally, so the gravity reactions shown are vertical. Schematic: movement is exaggerated and not to scale, and no values are calculated.

  1. The stair A flight of treads carried on stringers that rise from a base plate at the lower floor to a landing or trimmer beam at the upper floor, with a guardrail fixed to the stringer.
  2. Footfall People load case: people walking, standing and carrying loads press on the treads, which pass the load to the stringers.
  3. Load path Same case: the stringers carry the load to both ends: down to the base plate and its anchors, and up to the landing beam, which takes it to its own supports. If one end is free to slide horizontally, the supports take only vertical load; if both ends are held, the flight also pushes and pulls along its length, and storey drift or temperature movement add force. The drawings should say which end slides.
  4. Sag and bounce Same case: the stringer bends between its supports. A light, long flight can feel lively under footfall even when it is strong enough, so vibration is checked as well as strength.
  5. A push on the guardrail Guard load case: people lean on and push the guardrail outward (the symbol means a push towards you, out of the drawing). The load bends each guard post where it meets the stringer and twists the stringer it is fixed to.
  6. Twist in the landing beam People load case again: where stringers frame into one side of a landing or trimmer beam, their load acts off the beam's centre and twists it (the curved arrow), so its connections and restraint have to be designed for that.
  7. Potential failure points Where such stairs can fail if a check or detail is missed, numbered as in the list below: the stringer at mid-flight, the treads and their fixings, the stringer top connection, the landing beam, the guard post bases, and the stringer foot. Schematic, not a prediction.

Numbered places where it can fail (the final step)

  1. Stringer at mid-flight: bending, deflection and bounce
  2. Tread and its fixing: plate bending and cleat welds
  3. Stringer top connection: bolt shear, block shear and restraint forces
  4. Landing or trimmer beam: twisting from stringers on one side
  5. Guard post base: bending at the root and weld failure
  6. Stringer foot: anchors, sliding and corrosion at floor level
Reference steel stair in side view: one flight between the ground floor and an upper floor, stringer fixed to a landing beam at the top and a base plate at the bottom, guardrail fixed to the stringer. Diagram only, not to scale and with no design values.

Short answer, continued

It fails at mid-flight by bending, sagging and bouncing, at tread fixings, at the bolted top connection, by twisting the landing beam it hangs from, at guard post bases and at the foot anchors; AISC 360 has a check for most of these, though, in our reading, no provision of the held Specification specifically covers a guard post bending the stringer web.12345 Bounce is the one people notice: SCI P354 says a fast descent is made at around 3 to 4 Hz, faster than normal walking, and it recommends only 0.5% damping for fully welded steel structures such as staircases.67 In Dubai the geometry of stairs in buildings other than villas and townhouses, which follow Part K, is set by Part B: risers of 100 mm to 180 mm, treads of at least 280 mm, handrails on both sides and a guardrail wherever the stair is more than 760 mm above the ground, with guard loads taken from ASCE/SEI 7-16, which this library does not hold.891011 Choose a ladder, spiral or equipment access stair only for the uses the Code allows, and a ramp where the level change is gentle and must be step-free.121314

What it is

Engineering explanation

A steel stair is two inclined beams, the stringers, with treads spanning between them, running from a floor or base at the bottom to a landing or floor beam at the top. Along the open side runs a guardrail (a balustrade in architectural language): posts, a top rail, infill, and a handrail to hold. The same family includes fixed ladders for maintenance access, ramps for step-free level changes, spiral stairs round a central column and steep equipment access stairs in plant areas. In the UAE steel stairs are typical for mezzanines, plant platforms, external escape and service stairs, villa feature stairs and anywhere a stair has to be fabricated off site and bolted in quickly.

How it carries load

Engineering explanation

A foot lands on a tread. The tread plate bends between its supports, usually angle cleats welded or bolted to the stringers, and passes the load to both stringers. Each stringer is a sloping beam: it bends between its top and bottom supports and delivers a reaction at each end. At the top, the reaction goes through a bolted plate into a landing beam or the floor edge; at the bottom, into a base plate and anchors. If one end is detailed to slide horizontally, gravity produces only vertical reactions. If both ends are held, the flight is statically indeterminate: the part of the load acting along the slope is shared between the two ends according to the axial stiffness and slip of their connections, which gives equal and opposite horizontal forces at the head and the foot whose size and direction are hard to predict. A flight held at both ends is also a strut or tie between two floors, so it picks up force when the floors drift relative to each other, when an external flight expands and contracts in the sun, and when the landing beam it hangs from deflects.

Engineering explanation

The guardrail works differently. A person leaning or a crowd pushing puts a horizontal force on the top rail; the rail spans between posts; each post is a short cantilever that carries that force as bending into its base, and the base passes it into the side of the stringer as a twisting moment. A landing supported on one side by the stringers and on the other by a wall or a trimmer beam receives the stringer reactions on one face, which twists the trimmer.

Part F requires a continuous load path from the point where an action is applied to the ground, and lists strength, serviceability including vibration, and stability against overturning and sway among the limit states a design must include as applicable.15 Stair live loads come from Chapter 4 of ASCE/SEI 7-16 through F.7.5,16 and balcony, handrail and guardrail assemblies have to withstand the loads specified in ASCE/SEI 7-16;11 this library does not hold that standard, so no stair or guard load is stated here.

Where and how it fails

Engineering explanation

1. Stringer at mid-flight: bending, sag and bounce. The stringer is usually a channel or a flat plate, long and shallow. Overloaded, it yields; slender and unrestrained, a channel can twist and buckle sideways; stiff enough for strength, it can still bounce under someone running down it. A channel is also loaded away from its shear centre, which lies outside the back of its web: tread cleats bolted to the web face and guard posts fixed to its side twist it as well as bend it. Bounce is the failure owners report, because a stair that moves feels unsafe even when it is strong.

AISC 360 takes the flexural strength of channels with compact webs and flanges bent about the major axis as the lower of yielding and lateral-torsional buckling, with the unbraced length measured between points that brace the compression flange against lateral movement or the section against twist.1 Torsion of non-HSS members such as channels is checked under Section H3.3.4 SCI P354 (UK guidance) states that footfall forces on stairs are generally much higher than on flat floors, that a fast descent is normally made at pace frequencies of around 3 to 4 Hz and possibly 4.5 Hz, compared with 1.5 to 2.5 Hz for normal walking, and that only the first two harmonics of stair loading need be considered.6 Part F’s vibration clause speaks of steelwork floor systems for normal occupancy and does not name stairs;17 P354 is the held source that treats staircases directly.

Engineering explanation

2. Tread and its fixing: plate bending and cleat welds. A chequer plate tread spans between the stringers and is stiffened by a folded nosing or a flat bar underneath. Too thin, it dishes and the nosing bends; the short fillet welds holding the cleats to the stringer can crack, especially where the tread is also used to brace the stringers. Grating treads depend on the manufacturer’s span data and end fixings.

AISC 360 takes the strength of a welded joint as the lower of the base metal strength, in tensile and shear rupture, and the weld metal strength in rupture.2 Part F says welding should not be undertaken on site, and where it is unavoidable the detailed method of work with certificates and tests must be submitted for approval.18

Engineering explanation

3. Stringer top connection: bolts, block shear and restraint forces. The stringer end plate or cleat carries the whole reaction of the flight, often through two or four bolts close to an edge. If the design assumed one end slides and the fixer tightened both, the connections now carry the horizontal restraint forces described above: the indeterminate share of the load along the slope, storey drift, thermal movement of an external flight and deflection of the landing beam. None of those was designed for, and the bolts or the floor-edge anchors crack out.

AISC 360 checks bolts for shear and tension, including prying,19 the connected material for bearing and tearout at each hole,20 and block shear along a shear path with a perpendicular tension path.3 In bearing-type connections it permits short-slotted holes, and long-slotted holes in only one connected part at each faying surface, with the slot length normal to the direction of the load, and does not permit oversized holes; any hole other than a standard hole or a short slot transverse to the load needs the engineer of record’s approval.21 Part F requires structures to resist self-straining forces from expansion and contraction, and the thermal range of exposed steelwork to be assessed case by case.22

Engineering explanation

4. Landing or trimmer beam: twisting. Stringers usually connect to one face of the landing beam. That puts the reaction off the beam’s shear centre and twists it. An open channel or I-section is weak in torsion and rotates visibly; the landing then tilts and the stair above it deflects more than calculated.

AISC 360 checks non-HSS members in torsion for yielding under normal stress, shear yielding and buckling, whichever gives the lowest strength.4 For hollow sections, torsion may be neglected when the required torsional strength is no more than 20% of the available torsional strength; above that, torsion, shear, flexure and axial force are combined in one interaction check.23

Engineering explanation

5. Guard post base: bending at the root. It is a frequent weak point on steel stairs and balustrades. The post is a small tube or flat bar welded or bolted to the side of the stringer, and the whole guard force becomes a moment on a short weld or a pair of bolts, and a local bending of the stringer web behind it. The post rarely snaps; it rotates, the weld cracks at the root, or the stringer web dishes, and the rail wobbles.

Guard assemblies must withstand the ASCE/SEI 7-16 loads;11 and the weld is checked as the lower of base metal and weld metal strength.2 No held AISC 360 provision covers a post moment bending a stringer web: Section J10 deals with concentrated forces on the flanges and webs of wide-flange sections and similar built-up shapes and refers other members to its Commentary,24 which this library does not hold, so the web needs its own plate check or a stiffener behind the post (our reading). For hollow section posts, AISC 360 takes the design wall thickness as 0.93 times the nominal thickness unless the section is made to ASTM A1065 or A1085.25

Engineering explanation

6. Stringer foot: anchors, sliding and corrosion. The foot sits on a slab or pad, often outdoors or in a wet plant room. Anchors can pull out or crack the slab edge, the foot can slide if it was meant to be fixed, and water collects where the stringer meets the floor.

AISC 360 requires anchor rods to resist the base loads including net tension, with their transfer into concrete designed to ACI 318 or ACI 349,5 and Part F requires post-installed anchors to be designed to ACI 318-19 for all failure mechanisms.18 Where corrosion could impair strength or serviceability, components are designed to tolerate it or are protected against it.26

Advantages and limitations

AspectAdvantageLimitation
FabricationFlights are made in the shop and bolted in quickly on siteNeeds finished floor levels fixed first; a late change alters every riser
SlimnessThin stringers and open treads look light and save spaceSlim, lightly damped flights bounce under fast descent
TreadsPlate, grating or infilled trays suit plant, external or feature stairsGrating and plate are noisy, and open risers need the sphere and triangle rules checked
GuardsPosts, rails and infill are easy to weld and shapePost bases are the weak point, and steel rails in the sun get hot
DurabilityGalvanized or stainless stairs last outdoors with maintenanceHollow sections need venting, and crevices at treads trap water
LaddersTake the least space for maintenance accessAllowed only for listed uses, with a cage or lifeline above 6 m of climb
RampsStep-free access for trolleys and wheelchairsA long run and landings take much more floor space than a stair
Steel stairs, ladders and guards compared (our assessment)

Engineering judgement, not a code rule. The ladder limits are from B.7.3.3 and B.7.3.4,2712 and the requirement that handrails in the sun must not reach harmful temperatures is from B.6.4.1.7.10

Why this structure, and not another

Engineering explanation

Our explanation. Steel against concrete stairs: a concrete stair is heavy, quiet and stiff, and it is cast with the building. A steel stair is chosen when the building is already built, when the stair serves a steel mezzanine or platform, when it is external and needs to be light, or when it is a feature. Exit stairs in many buildings sit inside fire-rated reinforced concrete enclosures anyway, which Part B requires where Table 3.4 of the fire code calls for them, with 2 h fire-rated blockwork permitted for low-rise and low-depth underground buildings;28 the flights inside can still be steel if the fire strategy allows.

Engineering explanation

Stair against ladder: a ladder saves floor space but asks the user to climb facing the rungs with both hands. The Code permits ladders only to spaces used by personnel for maintenance, repair or monitoring of equipment, to non-occupiable spaces reached only by catwalks and crawl spaces, to raised security or safety positions such as observation galleries and lifeguard stands, and to non-occupied roofs that need no stairway,12 and sets, for ladders inclined at 75° to 90°, handrails extending at least 900 mm above the platform with 500 mm clear between them, and for more than 6 m of climb a cage, back guard or self-retracting lifeline.27 It also records that the fire code does not accept a ladder in place of stairs to roofs, to LPG tanks or solar power systems on roofs, or to fire pump rooms, and that hatches, cat ladders, spiral and winding stairs may not be used to reach a fire pump room.12 Where people go regularly, or carry tools, a stair is the right answer.

Engineering explanation

Standard stair against equipment access stair: in industrial equipment areas the Code allows a steeper, narrower stair, with widths of at least 560 mm, treads of at least 255 mm and risers of no more than 230 mm,29 against at least 1,200 mm width, treads of at least 280 mm and risers of 100 mm to 180 mm for ordinary stairs.288 It saves space but is tied to that use.

Engineering explanation

Spiral against straight: a spiral stair round a central column takes the least plan area, but winders, spiral and curved stairs are not permitted in means of egress except in industrial occupancies for access to equipment areas, on storage mezzanines used only for storage and not as office space, and on retail mezzanines where goods are stored, and a spiral stair needs at least 660 mm clear width and risers of no more than 240 mm.13 Structurally, all the treads cantilever from the column, which then carries the whole stair in bending and torsion.

Engineering explanation

Stair against ramp: the Code requires a ramp where a level change on an accessible route has a gradient steeper than 5%, limits the ramp slope to 8.33%, asks for at least 1,000 mm clear between handrails, landings where a run exceeds 10 m, and guardrails in accordance with B.6.4.1.8.14 A steel ramp is a sloping floor, designed like a mezzanine deck, with the same vibration concern.

Engineering explanation

Twin stringers against a central spine: two channel stringers are simple and stiff. A single central spine beam looks cleaner, but every tread becomes a cantilever and every off-centre footstep twists the spine, so torsion and bounce govern and connections to the landings must carry that twist.

For the experienced engineer

SCI P354 treats staircases with their own parameters: the low-to-high frequency cut-off is 12 Hz for staircases against 10 Hz for general floors,30 the recommended critical damping for fully welded steel structures such as staircases is 0.5%,7 and the recommended response-factor multiplying factors are 32 for lightly used stairs, such as in offices, and 24 for heavily used stairs in public buildings and stadia.31

Engineering explanation

Our reading: with a first harmonic of stair loading up to about 4.5 Hz and a second harmonic up to about twice that,6 a slim flight whose first vertical or lateral mode sits below the staircase cut-off can be excited near resonance. Adding mass, a stiffer stringer, bolted connections that add a little friction damping, or intermediate support are the usual cures. Check the lateral mode of open-riser stairs too: a flight with no stiff tread-to-stringer connections can sway sideways.

Engineering explanation

Support assumptions: decide which end of each flight is held and which is meant to slide, and have the engineer design the sliding end as a retained sliding support; it is not something to improvise on site. The drawings should show the direction and range of movement, including construction tolerance; the surfaces that carry the bearing reaction while it slides; how the fasteners or keepers are arranged and kept in place so the stringer cannot lift, walk off or drop from its seat; which restraints remain, sideways and against uplift; and what the fixer must check at installation. AISC 360 requires the forces and deformations used to design a connection to match how the connection is meant to perform and the assumptions of the structural design.32 A bolt simply left loose in a slot is not such a detail: it can lock when the bolt bears on the end of the slot, or work loose. If both ends must be held, design both connections and the floor edge for the restraint forces from storey drift, thermal movement of external flights and landing-beam deflection, with the axial share of gravity bounded both ways. A stringer designed to slide but locked in place sends those forces into its connections (general engineering explanation).

For galvanized handrails, the American Galvanizers Association (US industry guidance) shows internal vent holes of the full internal diameter as the best design and asks for external vent holes close to the welds and visible from outside so the galvanizer can confirm them.33 For stainless balustrades, Euro Inox guidance describes grade 1.4401 (316) as appropriate for coastal or heavy industrial sites and 1.4301 (304) as suitable for less demanding exteriors, and recommends fasteners at least equivalent in grade where the connection is moist or humid.34 Its example of a faulty stainless fabrication shows a poor weld, bolts of an incompatible, low-corrosion-resistance alloy and rust staining, and it notes that an aggressive, for example coastal, atmosphere compounds such problems.35

Part B also limits handrail brackets, requires handrails to contrast with their background, and requires handrail materials exposed to the sun not to reach temperatures that can harm users.10 The triangular opening between riser, tread and the bottom of the guard must not pass a 150 mm sphere.36

Which rules apply in Dubai

Part B sends the number of exit stairways, their width, separation, discharge and fire rating to Chapter 3 of the UAE Fire and Life Safety Code, states that its own architectural stair requirements align with or exceed that code, and requires all stairways to have a clear width of at least 1,200 mm.28 Risers are 100 mm to 180 mm and treads at least 280 mm, with no more than 10 mm variation in either within a flight.8

Stairs have handrails on both sides, 865 mm to 965 mm above the leading edge of the tread.9 Every stairway more than 760 mm above finished ground level has a guardrail at least 1,200 mm high, or 1,065 mm where the stair handrail forms part of it, with openings up to 865 mm that a 100 mm sphere cannot pass.10 Guardrails at landings or balconies over stairways also conform to B.4.2.5.2,36 which, with listed exceptions such as the loading side of loading docks and the audience side of stages, covers any walking or standing space elevated 760 mm above the finished floor and asks for at least 1,200 mm.11 Villas and townhouses are addressed in Part K.37

Engineering explanation

Detailed rules in this library: Stair steps in Dubai: riser height, tread depth, landings and handrails covers building stair geometry and the villa riser, tread, width, landing and handrail rules (the villa spiral, curved and winder dimensions and the villa headroom are a stated gap there); Industrial platforms, walkways and fixed ladders in Dubai covers equipment stairs, ladders and where guard heights conflict; Detailing hollow steel sections for hot-dip galvanizing covers venting; Architectural and secondary steelwork in Dubai: coatings, fixings and movement covers coatings and fixings. Gaps: ASCE/SEI 7-16 stair, handrail, guardrail and ladder loads, and ISO 10137 and BS 6472, which P354 relies on, are not held.

What to settle before design

Settle these before the stair is detailed

  • Finished floor levels at top and bottom, with finish thicknesses
  • Stair type allowed for the use: building stair, equipment stair, spiral, ladder or ramp
  • What the top of the flight hangs from, and whether that beam can take the twist
  • Which end slides and which is fixed, shown on the drawings
  • Guard type, post spacing and how each post is fixed to the stringer
  • Tread type, nosing and slip resistance for the location
  • Vibration: expected use, fast descent, and the stair’s first frequencies
  • Exposure and finish: painted, galvanized with venting, or stainless grade

A working list for a junior engineer. It is not an approval checklist.

Scope and limits

Practical consideration

Written from the 2021 Dubai Building Code, ANSI/AISC 360-16, SCI P354 (2009) and the AGA and Euro Inox guides as held on the check date; later amendments were not audited. ASCE/SEI 7-16, ISO 10137, BS 6472 and ACI 318-19 are not held, so no stair, guard or ladder load and no vibration acceptance value beyond those P354 states is given. P354 (UK) is named in DBC F.8.8.1 as an evaluation method for steelwork floors, not for stairs; here it and the AGA (US) and Euro Inox (European) guides are used for principle and practice, not as a Dubai design basis for stairs. The engineering explanations are ours. This guide is not a design of any stair and does not replace the project engineer’s calculations or the authority’s acceptance.

Questions this guide answers

Source notes

Numbered notes point to the exact section and physical PDF page. Page numbers are the PDF viewer’s page, which can differ from the number printed on the page. Sources checked 26 September 2026. These notes support the statements; they are not a substitute for reading the current document for a project.

  1. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section F2, F2.1 Yielding and F2.2 Lateral-torsional buckling, printed page 16.1-47. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  2. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J2.4 Strength of welded joints, Eq. J2-2 to J2-5, printed page 16.1-122. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  3. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J4.3 Block shear strength, printed page 16.1-138. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  4. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section H3.3 Non-HSS members subject to torsion and combined stress, printed page 16.1-84. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  5. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J9 Anchor rods and embedments, printed page 16.1-141. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  6. Design of Floors for Vibration: A New Approach (SCI P354), Revised edition, February 2009. Steel Construction Institute. Section 3.1.2 Staircases and Table 3.2 (printed page 16), PDF page 28. Open the publisher PDF at page 28 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  7. Design of Floors for Vibration: A New Approach (SCI P354), Revised edition, February 2009. Steel Construction Institute. Section 4.1.1 Damping and Table 4.1 (printed page 20), PDF page 32. Open the publisher PDF at page 32 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  8. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.6.4.1.4 Stair risers and treads (printed page B44), PDF page 64. Open the publisher PDF at page 64 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  9. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.6.4.1.7 Handrails and Figure B.33 (printed page B47), PDF page 67. Open the publisher PDF at page 67 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  10. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.6.4.1.7 Handrails continued and B.6.4.1.8 Guardrails, Figure B.35 (printed page B48), PDF page 68. Open the publisher PDF at page 68 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

  11. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.4.2.5.2 Guardrails for fall protection (printed page B29), PDF page 49. Open the publisher PDF at page 49 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

  12. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.7.3.3 continued, areas where ladders are permitted, and B.7.3.4 Access to utilities (printed page B78), PDF page 98. Open the publisher PDF at page 98 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

  13. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.6.4.1.12 Winders, spiral or curved stairs (printed page B50), PDF page 70. Open the publisher PDF at page 70 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  14. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part C, C.5.9.1.1 Accessible and pedestrian ramp requirements, Table C.13, and C.5.9.1.2 Ramp runs (printed page C28), PDF page 178. Open the publisher PDF at page 178 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  15. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.5.3 Design acceptance criteria and F.5.4 Structural stability (printed page F13), PDF page 339. Open the publisher PDF at page 339 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  16. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.5 Live loads (printed page F34), PDF page 360. Open the publisher PDF at page 360 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  17. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.8.8.1 Vibration, steelwork (printed page F47), PDF page 373. Open the publisher PDF at page 373 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  18. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.6.5.4.2 Welded connections and F.6.5.4.3 Post-installed anchors (printed page F31), PDF page 357. Open the publisher PDF at page 357 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  19. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J3.6 Tensile and shear strength of bolts and threaded parts, printed page 16.1-131. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  20. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J3.10 Bearing and tearout strength at bolt holes, printed page 16.1-135. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  21. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J3.2 Size and use of holes, items (b), (e) and (f), printed page 16.1-128. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  22. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.10 Self-straining forces and F.7.11 Thermally induced forces (printed page F35), PDF page 361. Open the publisher PDF at page 361 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  23. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section H3.2 HSS subject to combined torsion, shear, flexure and axial force, printed page 16.1-83. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  24. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J10 Flanges and webs with concentrated forces, introduction and User Notes, printed page 16.1-142. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  25. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section B4.2 Design wall thickness for HSS, printed page 16.1-20. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  26. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section B3.13 Design for corrosion effects, printed page 16.1-15. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  27. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.7.3.3 Maintenance ladders, Table B.17 and Figure B.74 (printed page B77), PDF page 97. Open the publisher PDF at page 97 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  28. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.6.4.1.1 General, B.6.4.1.2 Exit staircase construction and B.6.4.1.3 Stairway width (printed page B43), PDF page 63. Open the publisher PDF at page 63 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  29. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.6.4.1.13 Equipment access (printed page B51), PDF page 71. Open the publisher PDF at page 71 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  30. Design of Floors for Vibration: A New Approach (SCI P354), Revised edition, February 2009. Steel Construction Institute. Section 6.3 Response analysis and Table 6.1 Low to high frequency cut-off (printed page 38), PDF page 50. Open the publisher PDF at page 50 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  31. Design of Floors for Vibration: A New Approach (SCI P354), Revised edition, February 2009. Steel Construction Institute. Section 5.3.2, Table 5.3 Recommended multiplying factors based on single person excitation (printed page 31), PDF page 43. Open the publisher PDF at page 43 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  32. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section B3.4 Design of connections and supports, B3.4a Simple connections, printed page 16.1-13. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  33. Design of Products to Be Hot-Dip Galvanized After Fabrication, Copyright 2023, as printed in the acquired PDF. American Galvanizers Association. AGA, recommended designs for tubular fabrications: handrail, Figures 20 and 21 (printed page 12), PDF page 14. Open the publisher PDF at page 14 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  34. Guide to Stainless Steel Finishes, Third edition 2005, Building Series Vol. 1; verified PDF p. 3. Euro Inox; hosted by worldstainless. Euro Inox, Guide to Stainless Steel Finishes, Annex A: selection of material grade and mechanical connections (printed page 18), PDF page 20. Open the publisher PDF at page 20 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  35. The Mechanical Finishing of Decorative Stainless Steel Surfaces, First edition 2005, Materials and Applications Series Vol. 6; verified PDF p. 2. Euro Inox; hosted by worldstainless. Euro Inox, Mechanical Finishing of Decorative Stainless Steel Surfaces: faults on a stainless fabrication and points to reduce them (printed page 22), PDF page 24. Open the publisher PDF at page 24 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  36. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part B, B.6.4.1.8 Guardrails continued, triangular openings and guardrails at landings or balconies over stairways (printed page B49), PDF page 69. Open the publisher PDF at page 69 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  37. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part A, A.5.1, scope continued: villas and townhouses addressed in Part K (printed page A10), PDF page 12. Open the publisher PDF at page 12 (opens in a new tab) ↩