Short answer
A long-span roof covers a large hall without internal columns, most often with deep steel trusses whose chords and diagonals carry load mainly as tension and compression; under the AISC 360 direct analysis method each compressed member is checked for flexural buckling over its unbraced length unless analysis justifies less, and the bracing that defines that length needs enough strength and stiffness to control movement at the braced points, for which a user note points to Appendix 6.12 The answer continues below the drawing.
The reference structure
Key: amber arrows are loads and amber dashes the load path; straight black arrows are reactions, the forces the supports give back; grey dashed arrows with solid heads show movement, not a force; grey dashes and dots are shapes, exaggerated; where marked, thick rust-red lines are in compression and thick blue lines in tension; shaded amber areas mark where the step’s effect is greatest; numbered rust circles are potential failure points.
- The truss A planar truss of top chord, bottom chord and diagonal web members spans between two columns: its left end is held in position and its right end sits on a sliding bearing. Purlins sit on the top-chord nodes; the strip above is a plan of the top chord between two roof-bracing bays.
- Roof load Downward load case: the weight of the roof and its services, and any imposed roof load, passes through the purlins to the top-chord nodes. The truss carries it through its two bearings, and the columns take it down to their bases, where the foundations hold them up.
- Tension and compression Same downward case: the truss bends as one deep member, so the top chord is squeezed (compression, red) and the bottom chord stretched (tension, blue); the diagonals, which carry the shear to the supports, are squeezed where they rise towards midspan and stretched where they fall. Under wind uplift every one of these signs reverses.
- Deflection and the sliding end Same case: the truss sags (exaggerated) and its bottom chord lengthens, so the sliding end moves outward; temperature change moves it too. The bearing must actually slide, stay on its seat at the extremes of movement, and still stop the truss rolling over.
- Holding the top chord Same downward case, in plan: the squeezed top chord can buckle sideways, out of the truss's plane. Purlins hold it at each purlin point only if they are tied back, along their own length, to a roof-bracing bay, which carries the restraint forces to the braced walls; if they are not, the chord can bow out over the whole length between the bracing bays at its ends.
- Wind uplift, a separate case Wind uplift case: when suction exceeds the roof's weight, every force reverses. The bottom chord is now squeezed (compression, red) and needs braced points of its own, and diagonals designed as ties become struts. The columns and anchors are pulled up (dashes: the path from the roof to the anchors); the sliding bearing must hold the truss down while still letting it slide, and the foundations must hold the columns down.
- Potential failure points Where long-span trusses can fail if a check or detail is missed, numbered as in the list below: the top chord between braced points (drawn bowed in plan, exaggerated), the bottom chord under uplift, a web member near the support, a welded chord joint, a bolted chord splice, the sliding bearing, deflection and ponding of the whole roof, and a single truss during erection. Schematic, not a prediction.
Numbered places where it can fail (the final step)
- Top chord between braced points (plan): out-of-plane buckling
- Bottom chord under wind uplift: buckling in compression
- Web member near the support: buckling in compression
- Welded chord joint: chord wall plastification or punching
- Bolted chord splice: bolts and splice plates
- Sliding bearing: thermal restraint and loss of support
- Whole roof: deflection and ponding
- Single truss during erection: sideways instability
Short answer, continued
Welded hollow-section truss joints follow AISC 360 Chapter K, which applies only where member centrelines lie in one plane and whose strengths hold only within its limits of applicability.3 In our summary, trusses usually fail by chord or web buckling, at welded joints and splices, at bearings, by excessive deflection or ponding, or while standing alone during erection.4567 In Dubai such a roof on a building is designed under Part F, but stadia, grandstands and tents are outside the Code.8 Apart from an AISC 360 rule for single-angle web members of box or space trusses, no held source gives design rules for space frames, domes or gridshells; AISC 360 calls joints with branches in more than one plane multiplanar, and its Appendix 1 allows design by advanced analysis with imperfections modelled directly.91011
What it is
Engineering explanation
A long-span roof covers a large floor without internal columns: exhibition halls, aircraft and maintenance hangars, sports halls, malls, atria, mosques, terminals and large warehouses. The commonest form is the planar truss, a deep lattice of top chord, bottom chord and diagonal web members, spanning between columns with purlins on top. Where the roof spans both ways, a space frame of repeated pyramids with bolted or welded nodes is used, and for curved roofs a dome, vault or gridshell carries load mainly by curvature rather than bending.
How it carries load
Engineering explanation
A truss is a beam with its web replaced by triangles. Under roof load it bends as one deep member: the top chord is squeezed, the bottom chord stretched, and the diagonals carry the shear to the supports. Its straight members carry mostly axial force, which is why it is so much lighter than a solid beam of the same span; the price is that every compressed member can buckle.
Engineering explanation
Out of plane a single truss is very slender. The purlins carry the sheeting to the top-chord nodes and, if they are tied into roof bracing, also hold the top chord sideways. The roof bracing, a diagonal lattice in the roof plane at the ends or at intervals, carries those restraint forces and the gable wind to the braced walls and down.
Under the direct analysis method members are checked to Chapters D to K with no further check of overall stability, the effective length for flexural buckling is the unbraced length unless rational analysis justifies less, and bracing that defines it needs enough stiffness and strength to control movement at the braced points.1 Appendix 6 sets that strength and stiffness; its user note puts the guidance for trusses in the Commentary,2 which this library does not hold.
At points of support, beams, girders and trusses must be restrained against rotation about their longitudinal axis unless analysis shows the restraint is not required.12 Chapter K adds requirements for connections to hollow sections; for its purposes the centrelines of branch and chord members must lie in a common plane.3
Engineering explanation
Wind changes the picture on a light roof. Suction lifts the roof, and when it exceeds the roof's weight every force in the truss reverses: the bottom chord goes into compression and needs braced points of its own, and diagonals designed as ties become struts. A gravity-only design never provides those, which is why uplift is the design case that most often catches long-span roofs.
In Dubai the design wind pressure is not less than 1 kN/m² in all cases, and the Code notes that for unusual constructions additional studies such as wind tunnel testing are expected.13 Wind tunnel testing is required where a building's shape or surroundings are not covered by the wind rules of ASCE/SEI 7-16 or other reliable data and a safe design with conservative wind loads is not possible.14
Engineering explanation
Space frames, domes and gridshells carry load differently, and apart from one AISC 360 rule for single-angle web members of space trusses9 no held source gives design rules for them, so this is our explanation from general principles. A space frame spans both ways like a thick plate; its short, repeated members depend heavily on the nodes, often proprietary bolted systems whose capacity comes from the manufacturer's testing. Its many members offer other load paths, but once a compression member buckles the load it sheds can overload its neighbours, so progressive collapse has to be considered; it is also sensitive to node slip and to its edge supports.
Engineering explanation
A dome or gridshell carries load mainly by compression along its curved surface, so its members can be very slender. Its critical failure is usually the whole surface snapping through, and that buckling load is very sensitive to small departures from the intended shape, to joint stiffness and to one-sided loads such as wind. Hence geometrically non-linear analysis with imperfections, joints designed as carefully as members, and wind usually from a wind tunnel study.
Where and how it fails
Engineering explanation
1. Top chord between braced points. The top chord is the most compressed member, and out of plane it is held only where purlins are tied to bracing. If the purlins are not tied in, all the chords sway sideways together between the bracing bays, over a buckling length many times the purlin spacing.
A compression member's strength is the lowest of flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling, with φc = 0.90 or Ωc = 1.67, and flexural buckling follows Section E3, with a user note suggesting Lc/r preferably not above 200.154 A point brace on a compression member needs a strength of 0.01Pr (Eq. A-6-3) and a stiffness of 8Pr/Lbr divided by φ = 0.75 (Eq. A-6-4a).16
Engineering explanation
2. Bottom chord under wind uplift. Under uplift the bottom chord is compressed, often with braced points only at its ends. It buckles sideways, and because the bottom chord is usually below the purlins and far from the roof bracing, it may have no restraint at all unless bottom-chord ties or fly braces were designed. Compare uplift with the roof's weight on every project. The Code sets a 1 kN/m² floor on the design wind pressure,13 but does not say how it applies to roof suction, net pressure or components; using it as a minimum uplift is our reading, to confirm with the Authority, and the minimum-load rules of ASCE/SEI 7-16 are not held.
The same Chapter E checks apply to the bottom chord in compression, over its unbraced length.41 In Dubai the design wind pressure is not less than 1 kN/m² in all cases.13
Engineering explanation
3. Web member near the support. Shear is largest near the supports, so the first diagonals carry the largest web forces, and whichever of them is compressed can buckle, particularly single angles connected by one leg, which are loaded off-centre.
Single-angle compression members are checked under Section E5, whose effective slenderness ratios, subject to conditions on how the angle is loaded and connected, cover angles that are individual members or web members of planar trusses, and separately angles that are web members of box or space trusses.9
Engineering explanation
4. Welded chord joint. Where hollow-section web members are welded to a hollow-section chord, the force of each web member has to pass through the chord's wall. A thin chord wall bends in like a drum skin under a compressed branch (chord wall plastification), or the branch punches through it, long before the members themselves are overstressed.
Chapter K classifies HSS truss connections as T, Y, K or cross connections by how the branch's punching load is balanced.10 For rectangular HSS the Table K3.2 strengths apply within the limits of Table K3.2A; outside them the Chapter J limit states still apply but the Chapter K ones are not defined.17 For gapped K-connections of rectangular HSS, Table K3.2 lists chord wall plastification, shear yielding (punching), shear of the chord side walls and local yielding of the branches.5
Engineering explanation
5. Bolted chord splice. Long trusses arrive in pieces and are bolted together on site, usually in the chords. A splice in the bottom chord carries the full chord tension; one in a compression chord that relies on bearing must still hold the parts in line.
Bolts are checked for tension and shear rupture under Section J3.6 and for bearing and tearout at the holes under J3.10.1819 Where a compression member other than a column is finished to bear at a splice, the splice material and its connectors are arranged to hold all parts in line and designed for the lesser of an axial tension of 50% of the member's required compressive strength or the moment and shear from a transverse load of 2% of that strength, applied at the splice with no other loads and the member taken as pinned for those shears and moments, and a user note adds that all compression joints should also be proportioned for any tension the load combinations produce.20
Engineering explanation
That user note matters for roof trusses: under wind uplift a chord that is compressed under roof load goes into tension, so a splice detailed only to bear, or with minimal bolts, can pull apart. Check every splice for both signs of force.
Engineering explanation
6. Sliding bearing. A long roof grows and shrinks with temperature. If both ends are fixed, the truss pushes on its columns; if one end slides, the bearing must actually slide, stay on its seat at the extremes of movement, and still stop the truss rolling over.
Structures are designed for self-straining forces from expansion and contraction, and relieving details may be used where practical and where they do not violate the assumed load paths, permanent ones being durable and provided for maintenance; the Engineer assesses the thermal range and the thermally induced forces case by case, considering the construction stages, exposure and when the steel is locked into its final configuration.21 At its supports the truss must be restrained against rotation about its longitudinal axis unless analysis shows this is not required.12
Engineering explanation
7. Whole roof: deflection and ponding. A long, shallow roof deflects under load; if water collects in the sag, the extra water deflects it further, and on a flat roof with blocked outlets this can run away to collapse.
A roof system is investigated for strength and stability under ponding unless its surface is configured to prevent water accumulating.6 For trusses and joists the moments of inertia used in the ponding check include web-member strain, and a user note says that when only the chord areas are used the reduction can typically be taken as 15%.22 Steel deflection limits follow AISC 360 and AISC Design Guide 3.23
Engineering explanation
8. Single truss during erection. A truss lifted and set on its bearings is, until its purlins and bracing arrive, a tall, thin plate standing on edge. It can topple or buckle sideways under its own weight or a gust, and the lifting slings can put parts of the chords into compression that are in tension in service.
AISC 360 requires the structure to be secured as erection proceeds for the dead, erection and other loads expected, with temporary bracing wherever necessary, and no permanent bolting or welding until the affected parts are aligned.7 Part F requires construction-stage loads to be stated on the drawings and verified for every stage.24 The Australian erection guide recommends a temporary works engineer for non-standard structures: those for which the erector lacks extensive experience and a high level of competence, or which need special processes or erection methodology.25
Advantages and limitations
| Aspect | Advantage | Limitation |
|---|---|---|
| Planar truss, weight | Deep lattice carries long spans with little steel | Every compression member and both chords need braced points |
| Planar truss, fabrication | Straight members, repeatable nodes, shop-welded and site-bolted | Many joints; welded HSS joints are governed by chord wall thickness |
| Space frame | Spans two ways, suits square plans and gives a uniform soffit | Node systems are often proprietary and outside the AISC tables |
| Dome or gridshell | Carries load by shape, so members are very slender | Buckling is sensitive to imperfections and joint stiffness; needs advanced analysis |
| Services | Deep trusses give space for ducts and walkways | Hung loads must be known early, as they change chord and web forces |
| Erection | Trusses can be assembled at ground level and lifted | Single trusses are unstable until braced; lifts are design cases of their own |
| Thermal | A sliding bearing can release movement | Fixed ends attract thermal forces; sliding ends must stay seated |
Engineering judgement, not a code rule; no held source compares these forms.
Why this structure, and not another
UK portal-frame guidance notes that portal frames suit relatively modest loads, and that where deflections are critical or the frame carries high loads, such as suspended machinery, an alternative form such as a truss may be more appropriate.26 It is UK practice, cited for principle.
Engineering explanation
In our view the choice follows the span, the plan shape and what hangs from the roof. For a rectangular hall of moderate span with light services, a portal frame is usually cheapest. As the span grows, or heavy services, cranes, catwalks or tight deflection limits appear, a truss becomes more economical because its depth does the work. For a square or irregular plan, or where the roof must span both ways onto perimeter columns, a space frame is natural. A dome, vault or gridshell is chosen mainly for architecture or for very large clear spans, and accepted with its analysis, testing and erection complexity.
Engineering explanation
Steel against concrete for long spans is rarely close: concrete shells and prestressed beams exist, but in our judgement long-span roofs over halls, malls and hangars are usually best in steel, because of weight, speed and the ability to fabricate off site. What usually decides between steel forms is span and plan, services and hung loads, the architect's soffit, erection access and crane capacity, and whether the roof falls within the Dubai Building Code at all.
For the experienced engineer
For space frames and domes, the held sources go only this far. AISC 360 Chapter K applies only where branch and chord centrelines lie in one plane,3 and it classifies a joint with more than two primary branches, or with branches in more than one plane, as a general or multiplanar connection.10 Its tables of limits, K3.1A and K3.2A, are written for T-, Y-, cross- and K-connections only, and connections outside the limits of applicability are not prohibited but must be designed by rational analysis.5273 Section E5 does give effective slenderness ratios for single-angle web members of box or space trusses.9
Engineering explanation
No held source defines when a braced planar-truss roof, with trusses tied by purlins and bracing, becomes a space truss designed as one two-way system. That is a basis-of-design judgement: state which it is, because it decides whether the Chapter K tables and member-by-member bracing checks apply.
AISC 360 Appendix 1 permits design by advanced analysis that directly models system and member imperfections, with equilibrium and compatibility satisfied in the deformed shape and design by LRFD; its elastic method applies only to doubly symmetric members, including I-shapes, HSS and box sections, unless evidence shows it applies to other member types.11 Under Chapter C imperfections may always be modelled directly, in the most destabilising pattern, and a user note says patterns similar to both the displacements due to loading and the anticipated buckling modes should be considered.28
Practical consideration
Where a space frame, dome or gridshell is proposed, treat the governing documents as a gap to close with the Authority at concept stage: the system manufacturer's design manual and test data for the nodes, a recognised design guide for lattice shells, and the wind tunnel study. This library holds none of them, so it states no rules for them.
Chapter K strengths cover strength limit states only, and user notes add that connection strength is often governed by the HSS sizes, especially the chord wall thickness, so connections should be considered when members are sized, and that branch-to-chord angles below 30° can make welding and inspection difficult and should be avoided.3 Within the limits of applicability, eccentricities in welded HSS trusses are permitted without considering the resulting moments in the design of the connection.10
Both tables of limits, K3.1A for round HSS and K3.2A for rectangular HSS, restrict chord and branch yield stress to 52 ksi (360 MPa) or less and the ratio of yield to tensile strength to 0.8 or less, noting ASTM A500 Grade C as acceptable.527 For rectangular HSS, Table K3.2A also limits the chord wall slenderness B/t and H/t to 35 or less for gapped K-, T-, Y- and cross-connections, and requires the gap of a gapped K-connection to be at least the sum of the two branch wall thicknesses.27
Practical consideration
Check the specified grade and the chord wall slenderness against these limits when the members are first sized; outside them the Chapter K strengths are not defined.
Engineering explanation
The ponding user note on web-member strain22 is also a reminder about stiffness in general: a truss model built from chord areas alone overstates the stiffness. Use the full truss model, with web members, for deflection and camber.
Engineering explanation
Model with care. Pinned truss joints are conventional, but continuous welded chords attract secondary bending, and joints outside the Chapter K limits need rational analysis. Check both signs of axial force in every member, the lift with the real pick points, unbalanced wind, and the thermal case with the bearings actually built. For domes and gridshells, carry the imperfection amplitude assumed in analysis into the fabrication and erection tolerances.
For buildability, the Singapore connections guide, written to Eurocode, recommends bolted connections over field-welded ones, weld at factory and bolt at site, and fillet welds in place of penetration butt welds wherever possible.29 It is cited for detailing practice only.
Which rules apply in Dubai
Part F covers buildings and the structures or appurtenances connected to them, and leaves out the structures that Part A lists as needing special consideration because of their characteristics, functions and environment.30 That list excludes tents and structures subject to specific loading conditions such as stadia and grandstands, as well as silos and chimneys.8 A long-span roof over an assembly hall, mall, exhibition centre, warehouse or factory is part of a building the Code covers,31 and its steel is designed to AISC 360.32
Practical consideration
So the Code applies to most long-span roofs on Dubai buildings, but a stadium or grandstand roof, or a tent, is outside it; the authority requirements for those are not held, so confirm the governing documents with the Authority. Read Load paths, stability and bracing of steel structures in Dubai and The wind-load design basis for steel structures in Dubai. Beyond AISC 360 Section E5(b), no held source covers space frames, domes or gridshells.
What to settle before design
What to settle before design
- Is the roof part of a building under the DBC, or a stadium, grandstand or tent outside it
- Form: planar truss, space frame, dome or gridshell, and who designs any proprietary nodes
- Roof load, hung services, catwalks and any crane or rigging loads
- Wind: uplift against dead load, and whether wind tunnel testing is needed
- Braced points for top and bottom chords, and what anchors each purlin line
- Joint types and whether HSS joints fall inside the Chapter K limits
- Splice positions to suit transport and crane limits
- Bearing arrangement: fixed and sliding ends, movement range and seat length
- Deflection, camber and ponding with the full truss stiffness
- Lifting case, erection sequence and temporary bracing of the first trusses
- Corrosion protection and drainage of hollow sections
A working list for a junior engineer. It is not an approval checklist.
Scope and limits
Practical consideration
This guide reads the 2021 Dubai Building Code and ANSI/AISC 360-16 as checked on the date shown; later amendments were not audited. Apart from AISC 360 Section E5(b), no held source gives design rules for space frames, domes, gridshells, stadium roofs or tents, so our explanation of those forms is from general principles; the AISC Commentary, ASCE/SEI 7-16, the AISC design guides and space-frame manufacturers' manuals are not held. SCI P399 and the Australian and Singapore guides are cited for principle only. The drawing and comparisons are our illustration and judgement. This guide is not a design; review and acceptance sit with the project's appointed engineer and the Authority.
Questions this guide answers
Source notes
Numbered notes point to the exact section and physical PDF page. Page numbers are the PDF viewer’s page, which can differ from the number printed on the page. Sources checked 26 September 2026. These notes support the statements; they are not a substitute for reading the current document for a project.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section C2.3(b)-(d), with User Note, and C3 Calculation of available strengths, printed page 16.1-27. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6 introduction, User Notes and 6.1 General provisions, printed page 16.1-237. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Chapter K introduction and K1 General provisions, with User Notes, printed page 16.1-149. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections E2 Effective length, with User Notes, and E3 Flexural buckling, Eq. E3-1 to E3-3, printed page 16.1-35. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Table K3.1A Limits of applicability and Table K3.2, gapped K-connections, printed page 16.1-155. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections B3.9(c), B3.10 Ponding, B3.11 Fatigue, B3.12 Fire conditions and B3.13 Corrosion effects, printed page 16.1-15. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section M4 Erection, M4.1 to M4.4, printed page 16.1-171. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part A, A.5.1 General, continuation: structures to which the DBC does not apply (printed page A10), PDF page 12. Open the publisher PDF at page 12 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section E5 Single-angle compression members, printed page 16.1-38. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section K3 HSS-to-HSS truss connections, classification, printed page 16.1-152. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 1 introduction, 1.1 General requirements and 1.2.1 General stability requirements, printed page 16.1-185. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section B3.4 Design of connections and supports, B3.4a Simple connections and B3.4b(a) FR moment connections, printed page 16.1-13. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.12.1 Design basis, with note, and F.7.12.2 Wind pressures (printed page F37), PDF page 363. Open the publisher PDF at page 363 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.12.3.1 Requirements for wind tunnel testing (printed page F38), PDF page 364. Open the publisher PDF at page 364 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Chapter E, E1 General provisions, printed page 16.1-33. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6.2.1 Eq. A-6-1 and A-6-2, and 6.2.2 Point bracing, Eq. A-6-3 and A-6-4, printed page 16.1-239. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections K3.2 Round HSS and K3.3 Rectangular HSS, with User Notes, printed page 16.1-153. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J3.4, J3.5 and J3.6 Tensile and shear strength of bolts and threaded parts, Eq. J3-1, printed page 16.1-131. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J3.9 and J3.10 Bearing and tearout strength at bolt holes, printed page 16.1-135. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J1.3 Moment connections, J1.4 Compression members with bearing joints and J1.5 Splices in heavy sections, printed page 16.1-114. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.10 Self-straining forces and F.7.11 Thermally induced forces (printed page F35), PDF page 361. Open the publisher PDF at page 361 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 2, Section 2.1 continued, with User Note, and 2.2 Improved design for ponding, printed page 16.1-193. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.8.3.3 Steelwork deflection limits (printed page F45), PDF page 371. Open the publisher PDF at page 371 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.7 Construction load (printed page F35), PDF page 361. Open the publisher PDF at page 361 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Practical Guide to Planning the Safe Erection of Steel Structures, First edition October 2016; verified PDF p. 1-2. Australian Steel Institute / Brookfield Multiplex. Section 1.4 Standard versus non-standard structures and 1.5 Project phases (printed page 2), PDF page 5. Open the publisher PDF at page 5 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 1.1 Scope and 1.2 Why choose a portal frame? (printed page 2), PDF page 14. Open the publisher PDF at page 14 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Table K3.2A Limits of applicability of Table K3.2, printed page 16.1-157. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section C2.1(c) User Note, C2.1(d), C2.2 and C2.2a Direct modeling of imperfections, printed page 16.1-24. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Design Guide for Buildable Steel Connections: Bolted and Welded Connections to SS EN 1993-1-8, 2019. Singapore Structural Steel Society (SSSS). Chapter 8 Good practices for connections design, 8.1 General and 8.2 items (1) to (8) (printed page 660). Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.4.1 Application (printed page F11), PDF page 337. Open the publisher PDF at page 337 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part A, A.5.1 General, Table A.1 and Table A.2 Occupancies and use types (printed page A9), PDF page 11. Open the publisher PDF at page 11 (opens in a new tab) ↩
Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.6.5.1 Design basis and F.6.5.2 Steel grades, right-hand column (printed page F29), PDF page 355. Open the publisher PDF at page 355 (opens in a new tab) ↩