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Guide · Portal frames and warehouses

Steel portal frame: how it carries load, where it fails, and when to choose it

Dubai, UAESources checked 26 September 2026Technical review pending

Sources, edition and review status 4 source documents
Applies to
Dubai, UAE
Covers
Portal frames · Building frames · Load paths · Members · Connections · Bases and anchors · Wind · Serviceability
Based on
Dubai Building Code 2021 Edition, Part A A.5.1 and Part F (F.5.4, F.6.5, F.7.11, F.7.12, F.8.3.3); ANSI/AISC 360-16 Chapters B, C, E, F, H, J and Appendices 6 and 7, as the Code references AISC 360; SCI P399 (E007) and P398 (E006), UK Eurocode guidance, for behaviour and principle only
Source check
AI-assisted check of the cited pages against the source documents. Numbers, tables and exceptions were read from the source pages. Corrected on 30 September 2026 after a separate AI check against the source pages: the permissive wording of the cantilever deflection rule, the user note on imperfection patterns, torsional bracing, the equal-spacing condition and the UK origin of P399 statements; the corrected statements have had an author check only. Corrected on 11 and 12 October 2026 after separate AI checks against the source pages: the buckling-mode qualifier, the effective-length exception, the multi-span wording, the bracing reading for uplift, the member scope of the interaction equations and the slender-element limit; the corrected statements have had an author check only. No independent human engineering or legal review yet.
Status
Technical review pending. Later DBC amendments and circulars not audited.

How this library uses sources · Source notes for this guide

Short answer

A portal frame is a row of rigid frames, each two columns and two rafters joined by stiff haunched connections, tied together by purlins, side rails and bracing; UK guidance describes it as a series of unbraced transverse frames braced longitudinally, whose rigid eaves and apex joints resist load in the plane of the frame.1 The answer continues below the drawing.

The reference structure

Steel portal frame, step by step: its parts, roof load, the load path to the bases, the frame's response, wind as a separate load case, and seven numbered places where such frames can fail Column Rafter Base plate Haunch Apex Purlins Bases drawn pinned Roof load Load path Reactions: foundations hold the feet in Deflected shape(exaggerated) Largest bending at the haunches Wind Swayed shape(exaggerated) Base pulled up and sideways Uplift 1234567

Close-up views

Illustrative and not to scale: no dimensions, and not a construction detail. The actual detail is designed by the project engineer.

Close-up of the eaves: column, haunched rafter and bolted end plate under downward load Column Rafter Top flange: tension Inner flange: compression Haunch deepens the rafter where bending is largest Top bolts pulled

The eaves joint, downward load (step 4)

  • The rafter hogs at the eaves, so its top flange is stretched and the inner (bottom) flange squeezed; the top bolts of the end plate are pulled.
  • The haunch deepens the rafter where the bending is largest, as in the overview's response step.
  • Under wind uplift these forces reverse (step 5).
Close-up of a pinned column base under downward load: base plate, anchors and the foundation reactions Column load Foundation holds the foot in Drawn pinned Foundation Supports it

The left base, pinned, downward load (step 3)

  • This is the left base. The column brings its load down to the base plate and anchors; the foundation supports it and holds the foot in, pushing towards the middle of the frame, against the outward push of the frame.
  • The base is drawn pinned, as in the overview: it can turn, so it takes little moment.
  • Under wind the windward base is pulled up and sideways (step 5).

Key: amber arrows are loads and amber dashes the load path; straight black arrows are reactions, the forces the supports give back; grey dashes and dots are shapes, exaggerated; where marked, thick rust-red lines are in compression and thick blue lines in tension; shaded amber areas mark where the step’s effect is greatest; small open circles are pins or rollers, joints drawn free to turn; numbered rust circles are potential failure points.

Load cases shown one at a time: downward roof load, then wind as a separate case. Single-bay frame in its own plane, bases drawn pinned. Schematic: movement is exaggerated and not to scale, and no values are calculated.

  1. The frame Two columns and two rafters, joined by stiff haunched connections at the eaves and a bolted apex. Purlins span between the frames and carry the roof sheeting. The bases are drawn pinned for this explanation; nominally fixed bases change the moments, not the idea.
  2. Roof load Downward load case: the weight of the sheeting, purlins and services, and any imposed roof load, acts on the purlins, which pass it to the rafters.
  3. Load path Same case: each rafter carries its share to the eaves; the rigid haunch connection turns it into force and bending in the column, and the columns take it to the base plates, anchors and foundations. The rafters try to spread the eaves apart, so the column feet push outwards on the foundations, and the foundations, or a tie between them, hold them in (the arrows).
  4. Response Same case: the apex drops and the eaves spread outwards. Near the eaves the rafter hogs, so its inner (bottom) flange is in compression there; the bending is largest at the haunches, which is why the rafter is deepened there. Towards the apex the rafter sags.
  5. Wind, a separate case Wind presses on one wall and can lift a light roof. The frame sways sideways. Where the uplift is larger than the roof’s weight, the bending in the rafters reverses and much of the inner (lower) flange between the haunch and the apex goes into compression; that flange needs restraint, for example stays (fly braces) from the purlins. The windward base is pulled up and sideways. Along the building, roof and wall bracing, not the frames, take the wind to the ground.
  6. Potential failure points Where such frames can fail if a check or detail is missed, numbered as in the list below: the rafter flange beyond the haunch, the eaves connection, the column, the base plate and anchors, the apex splice, sway of the whole frame, and an unrestrained inner flange under uplift. Schematic, not a prediction.

Numbered places where it can fail (the final step)

  1. Rafter beyond the haunch: lateral-torsional buckling of the flange in compression
  2. Eaves haunch connection: bolts in tension and the end plate or welds
  3. Column: buckling and combined axial force and bending
  4. Base plate and anchors: uplift, shear and anchor pull-out
  5. Apex splice: bolts in tension
  6. Whole frame: sway and second-order (P-Delta) effects
  7. Rafter inner flange under wind uplift: buckling if it is not restrained
Reference structure: a single-bay steel portal frame with haunched eaves, one of a row of identical frames joined by purlins, side rails and bracing. The amber dashed line is the gravity load path; the grey dashed and dotted lines are the deflected shape under roof load and the swayed shape under wind, both exaggerated. Diagram only, not to scale and with no design values.

Short answer, continued

In Dubai a portal-framed factory, workshop or warehouse is a building the Code covers, with its steel designed to AISC 360 and its wind taken from ASCE/SEI 7-16 with the Code's Dubai wind speeds and a minimum design pressure.234 Portal frames usually fail where the rafter's compression flange is unrestrained, at the eaves and apex bolted joints, in the columns, at the bases under uplift, or by sway of the whole frame, and each has an AISC 360 check.56789 UK guidance calls steel portal frames a highly efficient and cost-effective way to enclose usable volume for relatively modest loads, and suggests a truss instead where deflections are critical or loads are high.10

What it is

Engineering explanation

A portal frame is a row of identical steel frames, each made of two columns and two sloping rafters joined by stiff, usually haunched, connections at the eaves and the apex. Purlins span between the frames to carry the roof sheeting, side rails carry the wall sheeting, and bracing in the roof and walls holds the building stable along its length. In the UAE it is the usual structure for warehouses, factories, workshops, logistics sheds and showrooms, because it encloses a large clear floor with little steel.

How it carries load

SCI P399, a UK guide to Eurocode 3, describes a portal frame building as a series of unbraced transverse frames braced longitudinally: in the plane of each frame, rigid eaves and apex joints resist the loads and leave the enclosed volume free of internal bracing.1 Out of plane, the longitudinal bracing and secondary steelwork provide the restraints that set the lengths over which columns and rafters can buckle.11 UK practice, cited for behaviour only.

Engineering explanation

Follow the roof load. Sheeting spans to the purlins, purlins to the rafters, and each rafter carries the load in bending while being squeezed along its length, because the pitched frame pushes outwards like a shallow arch. The rigid eaves joint turns rafter bending into column bending, and at a pinned base the frame pushes sideways on the foundation, a horizontal thrust the foundation must resist.

Engineering explanation

Now the wind. Across the building it is carried by bending of the frames, each swaying like a table with stiff corners. Along the building the frames give no resistance, so gable wind goes through the gable posts into roof bracing, along the eaves struts to the wall bracing and down. Wind also sucks the light roof upwards, and uplift can reverse the forces in rafters, purlins, joints and anchor rods.

In Dubai the Engineer calculates wind for strength and serviceability on the basis of ASCE/SEI 7-16, with the Code's reference wind speeds used in place of the ASCE wind maps, and in all cases the design wind pressure is not less than 1 kN/m².4 The Code also requires every feature critical to stability to be identified and designed, including all members that restrain critical members in compression.12

Engineering explanation

On our reading, the purlins, rails and stays relied on as restraints are therefore designed members. The clause does not say how the 1 kN/m² floor applies to roof suction, net pressure or cladding; treating it as a minimum uplift is our reading, to confirm with the Authority (ASCE/SEI 7-16 is not held).

Engineering explanation

Why the haunch? The frame's largest bending moment is at the eaves, where the rafter meets the column. A haunch, a tapered deepening of the rafter near the joint, puts extra depth only where it is needed and gives the bolts in the eaves joint a longer lever arm, so the rest of the rafter can be a lighter section.

P399 records that the haunch length, measured from the column centreline, is usually chosen as 10% of the portal span, which in elastic design makes the hogging moment at the sharp end of the haunch roughly equal to the largest sagging moment near the apex.13 It is a UK rule of practice, not a Dubai design value.

Where and how it fails

Engineering explanation

1. Rafter beyond the haunch. Near the eaves the rafter hogs, so its bottom (inner) flange is in compression, and the purlins are fixed to the top flange. If the bottom flange is not restrained by stays, the rafter buckles sideways and twists just beyond the sharp end of the haunch.

For compact doubly symmetric I-shapes the nominal flexural strength is the lower of yielding and lateral-torsional buckling, with Lb measured between points braced against lateral displacement of the compression flange or against twist.5 A braced point needs bracing that prevents twist, lateral bracing goes at or near the compression flange, and an inflection point is not a braced point unless braced.14 Rafters also carry axial force, so their bracing is beam-column bracing under Appendix 6.4, with both flanges restrained where both are in compression.15

Engineering explanation

2. Eaves haunch connection. The eaves joint is usually a bolted end plate. Under roof load its outer bolts are pulled hard, the end plate and column flange bend, the column web is squeezed opposite the rafter's bottom flange, and the web panel inside the joint is sheared. A thin-webbed column crumples or yields there first.

Bolt tension and shear rupture follow Section J3.6, and the required tension includes prying from deformation of the connected parts.6 Welds are checked under J2.4 as the lower of base-metal and weld-metal strength,16 and the column flange and web by Section J10, including flange local bending and panel-zone shear.1718 P399 notes, as UK practice, that thin-webbed portal columns usually need a compression stiffener and often local strengthening of the flange in the tension zone.19

Engineering explanation

3. Column. The column carries the roof load and the eaves moment together. Its inner flange is in compression under roof load, but the side rails are fixed to the outer flange, so the column can buckle sideways between the few points where its inner flange is restrained. Large doors that interrupt the side rails remove even those.

For doubly symmetric members, and singly symmetric members constrained to bend about a geometric axis, combined compression and flexure is limited by Eq. H1-1a and H1-1b, with available axial strength from Chapter E and required strengths from the Chapter C stability analysis;7 flexural buckling uses Section E3.20 P399 warns, as UK practice, that only continuous side rails are effective as restraints and that rails interrupted by roller shutter doors cannot be relied on unless additional bracing is provided.13

Engineering explanation

4. Base plate and anchors. The base carries the column's weight down, its horizontal thrust sideways and, under wind uplift, a net pull upwards. On a light shed uplift and shear usually govern, not compression: the anchor rods take the tension, and the foundation must be heavy enough not to lift.

Anchor rods are designed for the required resistance at the base, including the net tension from any bending moment, as threaded parts, with force transfer into the concrete to ACI 318 or ACI 349; where they resist horizontal force, hole size, setting tolerance and column movement are considered.8 Post-installed anchors are designed to ACI 318-19 for all conceivable failure mechanisms, illustrated in the Code's Figure F.14.21

Engineering explanation

5. Apex splice. At the apex the two rafters meet in a bolted end-plate joint. Under roof load its bottom bolts are in tension; under wind uplift the moment reverses and the top bolts are. A joint checked for one sense only can open in the other.

P399 notes, as UK practice, that under gravity loading the bottom of a typical apex connection is in tension, and that a small haunch below the rafter increases the lever arm to the tension bolts.19 The bolts are checked for tension, including prying, under Section J3.6.6

Engineering explanation

6. Whole frame: sway and second-order effects. Under wind across the building the frame leans, and the roof load acting on the displaced frame adds bending, which leans it further. A tall, flexible frame with heavy suspended services can lose stiffness this way long before any single member is overstressed.

AISC 360 requires second-order analysis covering P-Δ and P-δ, and one of the conditions for leaving P-δ out of the overall response is that no more than one-third of the total gravity load is on columns that are part of moment-resisting frames in the direction considered.9 Under the effective length method, K for columns whose bending stiffness provides lateral stability comes from a sidesway buckling analysis, unless the second-order to first-order drift ratio, for LRFD or 1.6 × ASD combinations, is 1.1 or less in all storeys, when K = 1.0 may be used for all columns.22

Engineering explanation

In the plane of a portal frame practically every column is part of the moment frame, so the one-third condition is not met and the analysis has to capture P-δ as well as P-Δ, for example by dividing each rafter and column into several elements.

Engineering explanation

7. Rafter inner flange under wind uplift. When the wind lifts the roof, the moment in the rafter reverses: most of the bottom flange goes into compression between the haunch and the apex, where there are no stays in a design checked only for gravity. The rafter can buckle sideways there, even though it looked safe under roof load.

P399 states, as UK practice, that under uplift most of the rafter's bottom flange is in compression, the purlins do not restrain it, and the rafter must be verified between torsional restraints.23 AISC 360 places lateral bracing at or near the compression flange and does not count an inflection point as braced unless bracing is provided there.14

Engineering explanation

Appendix 6 states its lateral bracing rule in terms of the beam's compression flange,14 so on our reading the flange that uplift compresses needs the same bracing as under gravity. Using the 1 kN/m² minimum pressure4 as a minimum suction is our reading, as noted above.

Advantages and limitations

AspectAdvantageLimitation
Clear spaceNo internal columns or bracing across the span, so racks, vehicles and cranes move freelyClear span is paid for in rafter and column depth and in eaves moment
Steel weightRigid joints share moment between rafter and column, so members stay light for modest loadsHeavy suspended loads, cranes or tight deflection limits quickly erode that economy
SpeedFew, repeated members; shop-welded, site-bolted; quick to erectFree-standing columns and part-erected bays need temporary stability until the bracing is in
FlexibilityEasy to extend by adding bays, or to build as multi-span hit and miss framesFrames are flexible, so doors, cladding and gutters must accept the movement
WindLow, light roofs attract modest horizontal windLight roofs are dominated by uplift, which reverses forces in rafters, joints and anchors
RestraintPurlins and rails do double duty as restraintsEvery stay, purlin and rail relied on is a structural brace that must be designed and installed
BasesNominally pinned bases keep foundations smallPinned bases make the frame more flexible and still need design for uplift and shear
Steel portal frames (our assessment)

Engineering judgement for typical UAE sheds and warehouses, not a code rule.

Why this structure, and not another

SCI P399 answers the question for UK practice: steel portal frames are a highly efficient and cost-effective way to enclose usable volume and suit relatively modest loads; being relatively flexible, they are generally given less onerous deflection limits, and where deflections are critical or loads are high, such as suspended machinery, a truss may be more appropriate.10 Its preliminary sizing tables cover single-span frames of 15 to 40 m at a 6° pitch, for estimating only.24

Practical consideration

That UK allowance does not relax the Dubai rules: F.8.3.3 and Table F.11 still apply, and how Table F.11 applies to a single-storey shed is a gap noted under the rules below.

Engineering explanation

Portal frame or truss on columns? In our view the portal wins for ordinary sheds: few members, repeated joints. A truss is deeper and stiffer for the same steel, so it suits longer spans, heavy hung services or very flat roofs, but it has more joints and its pinned ends do not stabilise the columns. With a crane, the frame usually becomes a portal with crane brackets or stepped columns.

Engineering explanation

A space frame spans both ways and suits square plans or architectural soffits, at more cost in nodes and erection; a concrete frame is heavier and slower for large clear spans. Span, clear height, hung and crane loads, the movement doors and cladding can take, and programme usually decide.

In UK practice, P399 describes multi-span portal frames with valleys, in which alternate internal columns can be omitted and a valley beam introduced, the hit and miss arrangement, to make the enclosed space more usable.11 Also UK practice, SCI P398 notes that haunches involve a lot of welding and are expensive, but that their use is justified when they increase the resistance of a portal rafter.25

For the experienced engineer

P399 identifies the first two in-plane buckling modes of a portal frame as usually the most important: a sway mode, and a symmetrical mode in which both columns of a single bay deflect outward and the apex drops; in frames of at least three bays a snap-through mode, in which a pair of rafters inverts, may also occur.26 That is UK practice, cited for behaviour. AISC 360 requires second-order effects and imperfections to be considered,27 and directly modelled imperfections must be placed in the pattern with the greatest destabilising effect; a user note adds that patterns similar to the displacements due to loading and the anticipated buckling modes should be considered.28

Engineering explanation

So a second-order analysis captures the symmetric and snap-through modes only if P-δ is modelled, with each rafter divided into several elements, and the imperfections include those patterns. Notional loads applied sideways represent the sway pattern, not the symmetric one; that is our reading, so check the other modes, for example by an elastic buckling analysis, when the frame has several bays or flat rafters.

On bases, as UK Eurocode practice, P399 says truly pinned bases are not used in orthodox portal construction, that the nominal stiffness of a typical base may be used to reduce serviceability deflections and improve frame stability while the ultimate analysis assumes pins, and that moment-resisting foundations are usually avoided because their cost outweighs the savings, with exceptions such as frames supporting overhead travelling cranes or on piled foundations.29 If any base fixity is relied on for strength, the base and foundation must be designed for the resulting moment.29 AISC 360 takes required strengths from an analysis that includes all component and connection deformations that contribute to displacement.9

Engineering explanation

Under AISC 360 the stability check and the strength check come from the same second-order analysis, so the UK split, pinned for strength but partly fixed for stability, does not carry over directly. On our reading, any base stiffness used for frame stability must be real, and the base plate, anchor rods and foundation must then be designed for the moment it attracts.

On restraint, at the brace nearest an inflection point in double curvature, bracing is attached at or near both flanges.14 A rafter is a beam-column, so a point brace on it needs the sum of the column requirement, Pbr = 0.01Pr and βbr = 8Pr/(φLbr), and the beam requirement, Pbr = 0.02MrCd/ho and βbr = 10MrCd/(φLbrho), with φ = 0.75, Cd = 2.0 for the brace nearest an inflection point in double curvature, and Lbr the actual unbraced length.303115 A torsional brace for the flexural part is designed under 6.3.2 (and under 6.4(c) it is combined or distributed with the panel or point bracing needed for the axial force, consistently with the actual bracing details), for a flexural strength of 0.02Mr and a stiffness that includes the web's distortional stiffness, and a user note warns that torsional bracing is ineffective when that web stiffness is too low.3233 One system bracing several members is designed for their sum, including connection and anchorage flexibility.34 In UK practice, P399 designs a stay and its connections for 2.5% of the maximum force in the compression flange between adjacent restraints.35

Engineering explanation

For a rafter the flexural term usually governs, so never size a stay from the axial term alone. Depending on how it is modelled, a fly-brace stay works as a lateral brace at the compression flange (6.3.1 combined under 6.4) or as a torsional brace (6.3.2); state which, because the checks differ. The UK 2.5% figure is not a substitute on a Dubai project designed to AISC 360.

Steel plate for built-up sections must be at least 6 mm thick,36 and a web or flange whose width-to-thickness ratio exceeds the λr limit of Table B4.1 makes the section a slender-element section, which changes the member checks.37

Practical consideration

Many UAE portal frames are pre-engineered, with welded tapered webs. The detailed portal-frame guide in this library found no AISC 360-16 provision written specifically for web-tapered members, so state the method used for tapered segments in the basis of design and agree it with the reviewer.

Longitudinally, in UK practice, P399 notes that single-span buildings are usually stabilised by vertical bracing in both side walls, but that larger and multi-span buildings are more sensitive, and it lists arrangements that use bracing on internal column lines, plan bracing to the perimeter walls, or portalised bays; all the gravity load in the columns being stabilised has to be counted.38 Under AISC 360, every roof must be investigated for strength and stability under ponding unless its surface is configured to prevent water accumulating.39

Hit and miss frames, again as UK practice: P399 explains that they have different lateral stiffnesses, so the stiffer hit frames attract more of the lateral load, which reaches them through the valley beam, bracing and sheeting; its procedure adds the valley beam reactions and the transferred lateral load to the hit frame and checks that the valley deflections of hit and miss frames are consistent.4041 Where one valley beam carries two miss frames, as in hit-miss-miss frames, it takes a uniform moment over its middle third when the frames are equally spaced, and needs much bracing if designed plastically, and P399 does not recommend plastic design for portalised stability frames on internal column lines, because connection ductility may be inadequate.404138

Engineering explanation

So hit and miss frames usually fail at the valley: a flexible or unbraced valley beam lets the miss frames sag and spread, and the hit frame's internal column and its connections are overloaded by valley load and sway force that a frame-by-frame model never gave them. Model the valley beam's stiffness, or analyse the building in 3-D.

Engineering explanation

Known pitfalls: stays omitted where purlins suit the sheeting rather than the rafter; side rails cut for doors late in design; a stiff gable beside a flexible first frame, tearing the sheeting; joints checked for gravity only; anchor rods sized for shear without hole clearance; and free-standing columns caught by a Shamal wind before the wall bracing is in.

Which rules apply in Dubai

The Dubai Building Code covers storage and industrial buildings, listed in Table A.2 as warehouse, factory and workshop.2 It does not apply to structures such as storage racks and cranes, so the racking and any overhead crane inside a portal-framed shed are not DBC structures in themselves.42 Structural steel is designed to AISC 360 with seismic design to AISC 341.3

Deflection limits for steel follow AISC 360 and AISC Design Guide 3, with a cantilever's span allowed to be taken as twice its length, and limits must suit features such as cladding and crane girders;4344 under 10-year return wind pressures, Table F.11 limits overall displacement to H/500 and inter-storey drift to between Hs/400 and Hs/600;45 and the thermal range for exposed steelwork is assessed case by case.46

Practical consideration

The loads that racks, cranes and forklifts put on the building still have to be designed for. Read Steel portal-frame warehouses in Dubai: what governs the design for the full design basis, a restraint worked example and the permit route; Crane runways in Dubai steel buildings; The wind-load design basis for steel structures in Dubai; Load paths, stability and bracing of steel structures in Dubai; and Serviceability of steel structures in Dubai. Two gaps: no UAE or US portal-frame design guide is held (SCI P399 is UK practice), and the Code does not say how Table F.11, written for building height H and storey height Hs, applies to a single-storey shed where the two coincide, so settle that with the Authority and record it.

What to settle before design

What to settle before design

  • Span, clear height, bay spacing and roof pitch agreed with the client, including racking and vehicle clearances
  • Crane, suspended services and solar panel loads known or allowed for
  • Enclosure condition for wind, including large doors open in a storm
  • Uplift combinations with the lowest realistic permanent load
  • Stability method, with P-Delta and P-delta in the frame analysis
  • Restraint plan: purlin and rail spacing, stays near haunches and apex, both flanges near inflection points
  • Eaves and apex joints checked for moment in both senses
  • Base fixity assumed, anchor rods for uplift and shear, and foundation uplift
  • Longitudinal bracing positions, eaves struts and gable framing
  • Deflection limits for sway, rafter, gable and doors, with their source
  • Thermal movement and bracing layout for long buildings
  • Erection sequence and temporary stability of free-standing columns

A working list for a junior engineer. It is not an approval checklist.

Scope and limits

Practical consideration

This guide reads the 2021 Dubai Building Code and ANSI/AISC 360-16 as checked on the date shown; later amendments were not audited. SCI P399 and P398 are UK Eurocode guidance, cited for behaviour only; their haunch-length, span-range and stay-force figures are UK practice, not Dubai design values. ASCE/SEI 7-16, AISC 341, AISC Design Guides 1 and 3, ACI 318-19 and the AISC Commentary are not held. The drawing and comparisons are our illustration and judgement. This guide is not a design; review and acceptance sit with the project's appointed engineer and the Authority.

Questions this guide answers

Source notes

Numbered notes point to the exact section and physical PDF page. Page numbers are the PDF viewer’s page, which can differ from the number printed on the page. Sources checked 26 September 2026. These notes support the statements; they are not a substitute for reading the current document for a project.

  1. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 2.1 General, with Figure 2.1 (printed page 5), PDF page 17. Open the publisher PDF at page 17 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  2. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part A, A.5.1 General, Table A.1 and Table A.2 Occupancies and use types (printed page A9), PDF page 11. Open the publisher PDF at page 11 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  3. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.6.5.1 Design basis and F.6.5.2 Steel grades, right-hand column (printed page F29), PDF page 355. Open the publisher PDF at page 355 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  4. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.12.1 Design basis, with note, and F.7.12.2 Wind pressures (printed page F37), PDF page 363. Open the publisher PDF at page 363 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  5. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section F2 Doubly symmetric compact I-shaped members: F2.1 Yielding and F2.2 Lateral-torsional buckling, printed page 16.1-47. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  6. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J3.4, J3.5 and J3.6 Tensile and shear strength of bolts and threaded parts, Eq. J3-1, printed page 16.1-131. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  7. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Chapter H, H1.1 Flexure and compression, Eq. H1-1a and H1-1b, printed page 16.1-77. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  8. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections J8 Bearing on concrete and J9 Anchor rods and embedments, with User Notes, printed page 16.1-141. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  9. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections C1.2 Alternative methods of design and C2.1(a)-(c) General analysis requirements, printed page 16.1-23. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩

  10. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 1.1 Scope and 1.2 Why choose a portal frame? (printed page 2), PDF page 14. Open the publisher PDF at page 14 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  11. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 2.1 General, continued, and 2.2 Hit and miss frames (printed page 6), PDF page 18. Open the publisher PDF at page 18 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  12. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.5.4 Structural stability (printed page F13), PDF page 339. Open the publisher PDF at page 339 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  13. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 6.1.2 Haunch dimensions, continued, and positions of restraints (printed page 37), PDF page 49. Open the publisher PDF at page 49 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  14. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6.3 Beam bracing, 6.3.1 Lateral bracing and 6.3.1a Panel bracing, printed page 16.1-240. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩ ↩ ↩

  15. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6.4(b)-(d) Beam-column bracing, printed page 16.1-244. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  16. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J2.4 Strength of welded joints, Eq. J2-2 to J2-5, printed page 16.1-122. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  17. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J10 Flanges and webs with concentrated forces, introduction, and J10.1 Flange local bending, printed page 16.1-142. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  18. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section J10.6 Web panel-zone shear, Eq. J10-9 to J10-12, and J10.7, printed page 16.1-146. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  19. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Sections 11.1 Eaves connections, continued, 11.2 Apex connections and 11.3 Bases (printed page 92), PDF page 104. Open the publisher PDF at page 104 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  20. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections E2 Effective length, with User Notes, and E3 Flexural buckling, Eq. E3-1 to E3-3, printed page 16.1-35. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  21. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.6.5.4 Structural connections: bolted, welded and post-installed anchors, with Figure F.14 (printed page F31), PDF page 357. Open the publisher PDF at page 357 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  22. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 7.2.3 Available strengths, with exception, printed page 16.1-246. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  23. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 8.4.2 Rafter and haunch stability under uplift conditions (printed page 76), PDF page 88. Open the publisher PDF at page 88 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  24. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Appendix A, A.2 Introduction and A.3 Column and rafter sizes (printed page 109), PDF page 121. Open the publisher PDF at page 121 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  25. Joints in Steel Construction: Moment-Resisting Joints to Eurocode 3 (SCI P398), 2013. Steel Construction Institute / British Constructional Steelwork Association. SCI P398, Section 1.3 Joint classification and 1.4 Costs (printed page 2), PDF page 10. Open the publisher PDF at page 10 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  26. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Sections 7.4.2 Fire boundary considerations and 7.5 Evaluation of in-plane frame stability (printed page 49), PDF page 61. Open the publisher PDF at page 61 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  27. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Chapter C introduction with User Note, C1 General stability requirements and C1.1 Direct analysis method, printed page 16.1-22. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  28. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section C2.1(c) User Note, C2.1(d), C2.2 and C2.2a Direct modeling of imperfections, printed page 16.1-24. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  29. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 7.4 Base stiffness (printed page 47), PDF page 59. Open the publisher PDF at page 59 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  30. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6.2.1 Eq. A-6-1 and A-6-2, and 6.2.2 Point bracing, Eq. A-6-3 and A-6-4, printed page 16.1-239. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  31. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6.3.1a symbols, 6.3.1b Point bracing, Eq. A-6-7 and A-6-8, and 6.3.2 Torsional bracing, printed page 16.1-241. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  32. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6.3.2a Torsional point bracing, Eq. A-6-9 to A-6-12, with User Notes, printed page 16.1-242. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  33. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6.3.2 User Notes, 6.3.2b Continuous bracing and 6.4(a) Beam-column bracing, printed page 16.1-243. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  34. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Appendix 6 introduction, User Notes and 6.1 General provisions, printed page 16.1-237. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  35. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 9.3 Restraint to inner flanges (printed page 84), PDF page 96. Open the publisher PDF at page 96 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  36. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, Tables F.5 and F.6 Steel grades and F.6.5.3 Plate thickness (printed page F30), PDF page 356. Open the publisher PDF at page 356 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  37. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Section B4.1 Classification of sections for local buckling, printed page 16.1-16. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  38. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 7.10 Overall stability perpendicular to the portal frames (printed page 58), PDF page 70. Open the publisher PDF at page 70 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  39. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360-16), ANSI/AISC 360-16, July 7, 2016. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). Sections B3.9(c), B3.10 Ponding, B3.11 Fatigue, B3.12 Fire conditions and B3.13 Corrosion effects, printed page 16.1-15. Publisher page (opens in a new tab) ↩

  40. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 7.9 Hit and miss frames (printed page 55), PDF page 67. Open the publisher PDF at page 67 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  41. Design of Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3 (SCI P399), 2015; verified PDF front matter. Steel Construction Institute. SCI P399, Section 7.9 continued and 7.9.1 Procedure (printed page 56), PDF page 68. Open the publisher PDF at page 68 (opens in a new tab) ↩ ↩

  42. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part A, A.5.1 General, continuation: structures to which the DBC does not apply (printed page A10), PDF page 12. Open the publisher PDF at page 12 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  43. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.8.3.3 Steelwork deflection limits (printed page F45), PDF page 371. Open the publisher PDF at page 371 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  44. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.8.1 Design basis and F.8.3.1 Deflection control, general (printed page F44), PDF page 370. Open the publisher PDF at page 370 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  45. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.12.3.1 Requirements for testing, F.7.12.4.1 Allowable displacement and Table F.11 (printed page F38), PDF page 364. Open the publisher PDF at page 364 (opens in a new tab) ↩

  46. Dubai Building Code, 2021 Edition. Government of Dubai; official copy hosted by Dubai Development Authority. Part F, F.7.10 Self-straining forces and F.7.11 Thermally induced forces (printed page F35), PDF page 361. Open the publisher PDF at page 361 (opens in a new tab) ↩